ForthePhysiologus，Bestiaries，etc。，seeBergerdeXivrey，TraditionsTeratologiques；alsoHippeau’seditionoftheBestiaredeGuillaumedeNormandie，Caen，1852，andsuchmedieavalbooksofExemplaastheLumenNaturae；alsoHoefer，HistoiredelaZoologie；alsoRambaud，HistoiredelaCivilisationFrancaise，Paris，1885，voli，pp。368，369；alsoCardinalPitra，prefacetotheSpicilegiumSolismense，Paris，1885，passim；alsoCarus，GeschichtederZoologie；andforanadmirablesummary，thearticlePhysiologusintheEncyclopediaBritannica。IntheilluminatedmanuscriptsintheLibraryofCornellUniversityaresomeverystrikingexamplesofgrotesques。ForadmirablyillustratedarticlesontheBestiaries，seeCahierandMartin，Melangesd’Archeologie，Paris，1851，1852，and1856，vol。iiofthefirstseries，pp。85-232，andsecondseries，volumeonCuriositiesMysterieuses，pp。106-164；alsoJ。R。Allen，EarlyChristianSymbolisminGreatBritainandIrelandLondon，1887，lecturevi；foranexhaustivediscussionofthesubject，seeDasThierbuchdesnormannischenDichtersGuillaumeleClerc，herausgegebenvonReinisch，Leipsic，1890；andforanItalianexamlpe，GoldstaubandWendriner，EinTosco-VenezianischerBestiarius，Halle，1892，whereisgiven，onpp。369-371，averypiousbutverycomicaltraditionregardingthebeaver，hardlymentionabletoearspolite。ForFriarBartholomew，seebesideshisbookitselfMedievalLore，editedbyRobertSteele，London，1893，pp。118-138。
Hereandthereamongmenwhowerefreefromchurchcontrolwehaveworkofabettersort。InthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturiesAbdAllatifmadeobservationsuponthenaturalhistoryofEgyptwhichshowedatrulyscientificspirit，andtheEmperorFrederickIIattemptedtopromoteamorefruitfulstudyofNature；butoneofthesemenwasabhorredasaMussulmanandtheotherasaninfidel。FarmoreinaccordancewiththespiritofthetimewastheecclesiasticGiraldusCambrensis，whosebookonthetopographyofIrelandbestowsmuchattentionupontheanimalsoftheisland，andrarelyfailstomakeeachcontributeanappropriatemoral。Forexample，hesaysthatinIreland“eaglesliveforsomanyagesthattheyseemtocontendwitheternityitself；soalsothesaints，havingputofftheoldmanandputonthenew，obtaintheblessedfruitofeverlastinglife。”
Again，hetellsus：“Eaglesoftenflysohighthattheirwingsarescorchedbythesun；sothosewhointheHolyScripturesstrivetounravelthedeepandhiddensecretsoftheheavenlymysteries，beyondwhatisallowed，fallbelow，asifthewingsofthepresumptuousimaginationsonwhichtheyarebornewerescorched。”
Inoneofthegreatmenofthefollowingcenturyappearedagleamofhealthfulcriticism：AlberttheGreat，inhisworkontheanimals，dissentsfromthewidespreadbeliefthatcertainbirdsspringfromtreesandarenourishedbythesap，andalsofromthetheorythatsomearegeneratedintheseafromdecayingwood。
Butitrequiredmanygenerationsforsuchscepticismtoproducemucheffect，andwefindamongtheillustrationsinaneditionofMandevillepublishedjustbeforetheReformationnotonlycarefulaccountsbutpicturedrepresentationsbothofbirdsandofbeastsproducedinthefruitoftrees。[15]
[15]ForGiraldusCambrensis，seetheeditionintheBohnLibrary，London，1863，p。30；fortheAbdAllatifandFrederickII，seeHoefer，asabove；forAlbertusMagnus，seetheDeAnimalibus，lib。xxiii；fortheillustrationsinMandeville，seetheStrasburgedition，1484；forthehistoryofthemythofthetreewhichproducesbirds，seeMaxMuller’slecturesontheScienceofLanguage，secondseries，lect。xii。
ThisgeneralemploymentofnaturalscienceforpiouspurposeswentonaftertheReformation。Lutherfrequentlymadethisuseofit，andhisexamplecontrolledhisfollowers。In1612，WolfgangFranz，ProfessorofTheologyatLuther’suniversity，gavetotheworldhissacredhistoryofanimals，whichwentthroughmanyeditions。Itcontainedaveryingeniousclassification，describing“naturaldragons。”whichhavethreerowsofteethtoeachjaw，andhepiouslyadds，“theprincipaldragonistheDevil。”
Neartheendofthesamecentury，FatherKircher，thegreatJesuitprofessoratRome，holdsbackthescepticalcurrent，insistsupontheorthodoxview，andrepresentsamongtheanimalsenteringthearksirensandgriffins。
Yetevenamongtheologianswenotehereandthereascepticalspiritinnaturalscience。EarlyinthesameseventeenthcenturyEugeneRogerpublishedhisTravelsinPalestine。AsregardstheutterancesofScriptureheissoundlyorthodox：heprefaceshisworkwithamapshowing，amongotherimportantpointsreferredtoinbiblicalhistory，theplacewhereSamsonslewathousandPhilistineswiththejawboneofanass，thecavernwhichAdamandEveinhabitedaftertheirexpulsionfromparadise，thespotwhereBalaam’sassspoke，theplacewhereJacobwrestledwiththeangel，thesteepplacedownwhichtheswinepossessedofdevilsplungedintothesea，thepositionofthesaltstatuewhichwasonceLot’swife，theplaceatseawhereJonahwasswallowedbythewhale，and“theexactspotwhereSt。Petercaughtonehundredandfifty-threefishes。”
Astonaturalhistory，hedescribesanddiscusseswithgreattheologicalacutenessthebasilisk。Hetellsusthattheanimalisaboutafootandahalflong，isshapedlikeacrocodile，andkillspeoplewithasingleglance。Theonewhichhesawwasdead，fortunatelyforhim，sinceinthetimeofPopeLeoIV——ashetellsus——oneappearedinRomeandkilledmanypeoplebymerelylookingatthem；butthePopedestroyeditwithhisprayersandthesignofthecross。HeinformsusthatProvidencehaswiselyandmercifullyprotectedmanbyrequiringthemonstertocryaloudtwoorthreetimeswheneveritleavesitsden，andthatthedivinewisdomincreationisalsoshownbythefactthatthemonsterisobligedtolookitsvictimintheeye，andatacertainfixeddistance，beforeitsglancecanpenetratethevictim’sbrainandsopasstohisheart。Healsogivesareasonforsupposingthatthesamedivinemercyhasprovidedthatthecrowingofacockwillkillthebasilisk。
YeteveninthisgoodandcredulousmissionaryweseetheinfluenceofBaconandthedawnofexperimentalscience；for，havingbeentoldmanystoriesregardingthesalamander，hesecuredone，placeditaliveupontheburningcoals，andreportstousthatthelegendsconcerningitspowertoliveinthefireareuntrue。Healsotriedexperimentswiththechameleon，andfoundthatthestoriestoldofitweretobereceivedwithmuchallowance：while，then，helocksuphisjudgmentwheneverhediscussestheletterofScripture，heuseshismindinotherthingsmuchafterthemodernmethod。
InthesecondhalfofthesamecenturyHottinger，inhisTheologicalExaminationoftheHistoryofCreation，breaksfromthebeliefinthephoenix；buthisscepticismiscarefullykeptwithinthelimitsimposedbyScripture。Heavowshisdoubts，first，“becauseGodcreatedtheanimalsincouples，whilethephoenixisrepresentedasasingle，unmatedcreature“；secondly。”becauseNoah，whenheenteredtheark，broughttheanimalsinbysevens，whiletherewereneversomanyindividualsofthephoenixspecies“；thirdly，because“nomanisknownwhodaresassertthathehaseverseenthisbird“；fourthly，because“thosewhoassertthereisaphoenixdifferamongthemselves。”
Inviewoftheseattacksonthesalamanderandthephoenix，wearenotsurprisedtofind，beforetheendofthecentury，scepticismregardingthebasilisk：theeminentProf。
Kirchmaier，attheUniversityofWittenberg，treatsphoenixandbasiliskalikeasoldwives’fables。Astothephoenix，hedeniesitsexistence，notonlybecauseNoahtooknosuchbirdintotheark，butalsobecause，ashepithilyremarks，“birdscomefromeggs，notfromashes。”Buttheunicornhecannotresign，norwillheevenconcedethattheunicornisarhinoceros；heappealstoJobandtoMarcoPolotoprovethatthisanimal，asusuallyconceived，reallyexists，andsays，“Whowouldnotfeartodenytheexistenceoftheunicorn，sinceHolyScripturenameshimwithdistinctpraises？”AstotheothergreatanimalsmentionedinScripture，heissorationalisticastoadmitthatbehemothwasanelephantandleviathanawhale。
Butthesegermsofafruitfulscepticismgrew，andwesoonfindDannhauergoingastepfurtheranddeclaringhisdisbeliefevenintheunicorn，insistingthatitwasarhinoceros——onlythatandnothingmore。Still，themaincurrentcontinuedstronglytheological。In1712SamuelBochartpublishedhisgreatworkupontheanimalsofHolyScripture。Asshowingitsspiritwemaytakethetitlesofthechaptersonthehorse：。OftheHebrewNameoftheHorse。”。OftheColoursoftheSixHorsesinZechariah。”。OftheHorsesinJob。”
OfSolomon’sHorses，andoftheTextswhereintheWriterspraisetheExcellenceofHorses。”。OftheConsecratedHorsesoftheSun。”
Amongtheothertitlesofchaptersaresuchas：OfBalaam’sAss；
OftheThousandPhilistinesslainbySamsonwiththeJawboneofanAss；OftheGoldenCalvesofAaronandJeroboam；OftheBleating，Milk，Wool，ExternalandInternalPartsofSheepmentionedinScripture；OfNotableThingstoldregardingLionsinScripture；OfNoah’sDoveandoftheDovewhichappearedatChrist’sBaptism。Mixedupinthebook，withtheprincipalmassdrawnfromScripture，weremanyfactsandreasoningstakenfrominvestigationsbynaturalists；butallwerepermeatedbythetheologicalspirit。[16]
[16]ForFranzandKircher，seePerrier，LaPhilosophieZoologiqueavantDarwin，1884，p。29；forRoger，seehisLaTerreSaincte，Paris，1664，pp。89-92，130，218，etc。；forHottinger，seehisHistoriaeCreatonisExamentheologico-philologicum，Heidelberg，1659，lib。vi，quaest。lxxxiii；forKirchmaier，seehisDisputationesZoologicaepublishedcollectivelyafterhisdeath，Jena，1736；forDannhauer，seehisDisputationesTheologicae，Leipsic，1707，p。14；forBochart，seehisHierozoikon，siveDeAnimalibusSacreScripturae，Leyden，1712。
TheinquiryintoNaturehavingthusbeenpursuednearlytwothousandyearstheologically，wefindbythemiddleofthesixteenthcenturysomepromisingbeginningsofadifferentmethod——themethodofinquiryintoNaturescientifically——themethodwhichseeksnotplausibilitiesbutfacts。AtthattimeEdwardWottonledthewayinEnglandandConradGesnerontheContinent，byobservationswidelyextended，carefullynoted，andthoughtfullyclassified。
ThisbettermethodofinterrogatingNaturesoonledtotheformationofsocietiesforthesamepurpose。In1560wasfoundedanAcademyfortheStudyofNatureatNaples，buttheologians，becomingalarmed，suppressedit，andfornearlyonehundredyearstherewasnonewcombinedeffortofthatsort，untilin
beganthemeetingsinLondonofwhatwasafterwardtheRoyalSociety。ThencametheAcademyofSciencesinFrance，andtheAccademiadelCimentoinItaly；othersfollowedinallpartsoftheworld，andagreatnewmovementwasbegun。
Theologianssoonsawadangerinthismovement。InItaly，PrinceLeopoldde’Medici，aprotectoroftheFlorentineAcademy，wasbribedwithacardinal’shattoneglectit，andfromthedaysofUrbanVIIItoPiusIXasimilarspiritwasthereshown。InFrance，therewerefrequentecclesiasticalinterferences，ofwhichBuffon’shumiliationforstatingasimplescientifictruthwasanotedexample。InEngland，ProtestantismwasatfirsthardlymorefavourabletowardtheRoyalSociety，andthegreatDr。Southdenounceditinhissermonsasirreligious。
Fortunately，onethingpreventedanopenbreachbetweentheologyandscience：whilenewinvestigatorshadmainlygivenupthemedievalmethodsodeartotheChurch，theyhadverygenerallyretainedtheconceptionofdirectcreationandofdesignthroughoutcreation——adesignhavingasitsmainpurposetheprofit，instruction，enjoyment，andamusementofman。
Onthisthenaturallyopposingtendenciesoftheologyandsciencewerecompromised。Science，whilesomewhatfreedfromitsoldlimitations，becamethehandmaidoftheologyinillustratingthedoctrineofcreativedesign，andalwayswithapparentdeferencetotheChaldeanandotherancientmythsandlegendsembodiedintheHebrewsacredbooks。
Aboutthemiddleoftheseventeenthcenturycameagreatvictoryofthescientificoverthetheologicmethod。AtthattimeFrancescoRedipublishedtheresultsofhisinquiriesintothedoctrineofspontaneousgeneration。Foragesawidelyaccepteddoctrinehadbeenthatwater，filth，andcarrionhadreceivedpowerfromtheCreatortogenerateworms，insects，andamultitudeofthesmalleranimals；andthisdoctrinehadbeenespeciallywelcomedbySt。Augustineandmanyofthefathers，sinceitrelievedtheAlmightyofmaking，Adamofnaming，andNoahoflivinginthearkwiththeseinnumerabledespisedspecies。ButtothisfallacyRediputanend。Byresearcheswhichcouldnotbegainsaid，heshowedthateveryoneoftheseanimalscamefromanegg；each，therefore，mustbethelinealdescendantofananimalcreated，named，andpreservedfrom“thebeginning。”
SimilarworkwentoninEngland，butundermoredistinctlytheologicallimitations。InthesameseventeenthcenturyaveryfamousandpopularEnglishbookwaspublishedbythenaturalistJohnRay，afellowoftheRoyalSociety，whoproducedanumberofworksonplants，fishes，andbirds；butthemostwidelyreadofallwasentitledTheWisdomofGodmanifestedintheWorksofCreation。Betweentheyears1691and1827itpassedthroughnearlytwentyeditions。