Inspiteofalltheseopposingforces，theevolutionofmedicalsciencecontinued，thoughbutslowly。InthesecondcenturyoftheChristianeraGalenhadmadehimselfagreatauthorityatRome，andfromRomehadswayedthemedicalscienceoftheworld：
hisgeniustriumphedoverthedefectsofhismethod；but，thoughhegaveapowerfulimpulsetomedicine，hisdogmatismstoodinitswaylongafterward。
Theplaceswheremedicine，suchasitthusbecame，couldbeapplied，wereatfirstmainlytheinfirmariesofvariousmonasteries，especiallythelargeronesoftheBenedictineorder：
thesewerefrequentlydevelopedintohospitals。Manymonksdevotedthemselvestosuchmedicalstudiesaswerepermitted，andsundrychurchmenandlaymendidmuchtosecureandpreservecopiesofancientmedicaltreatises。So，too，inthecathedralschoolsestablishedbyCharlemagneandothers，provisionwasgenerallymadeformedicalteaching；butallthisinstruction，whetherinconventsorschools，waswretchedlypoor。ItconsistednotindevelopingbyindividualthoughtandexperimentthegiftsofHippocrates，Aristotle，andGalen，butalmostentirelyintheparrot-likerepetitionoftheirwritings。
But，whiletheinheritedideasofChurchleaderswerethusunfavourabletoanyproperdevelopmentofmedicalscience，thereweretwobodiesofmenoutsidetheChurchwho，thoughlargelyfetteredbysuperstition，werefarlesssothanthemonksandstudentsofecclesiasticalschools：theseweretheJewsandMohammedans。Thefirstoftheseespeciallyhadinheritedmanyusefulsanitaryandhygienicideas，whichhadprobablybeenfirstevolvedbytheEgyptians，andfromthemtransmittedtothemodernworldmainlythroughthesacredbooksattributedtoMoses。
TheJewishscholarsbecameespeciallydevotedtomedicalscience。
TothemislargelyduethebuildingupoftheSchoolofSalerno，whichwefindflourishinginthetenthcentury。Judgedbyourpresentstandardsitsworkwaspoorindeed，butcomparedwithothermedicalinstructionofthetimeitwasvastlysuperior：itdevelopedhygienicprinciplesespecially，andbroughtmedicineuponahigherplane。
StillmoreimportantistheriseoftheSchoolofMontpellier；
thiswasduealmostentirelytoJewishphysicians，anditdevelopedmedicalstudiestoayethigherpoint，doingmuchtocreateamedicalprofessionworthyofthenamethroughoutsouthernEurope。
AstotheArabians，wefindthemfromthetenthtothefourteenthcentury，especiallyinSpain，givingmuchthoughttomedicine，andtochemistryassubsidiarytoit。Aboutthebeginningoftheninthcentury，whenthegreaterChristianwritersweresupportingfetichbytheology，Almamon，theMoslem，declared，“TheyaretheelectofGod，hisbestandmostusefulservants，whoselivesaredevotedtotheimprovementoftheirrationalfaculties。”TheinfluenceofAvicenna，thetranslatoroftheworksofAristotle，extendedthroughoutallEuropeduringtheeleventhcentury。TheArabianswereindeedmuchfetteredbytraditioninmedicalscience，buttheirtranslationsofHippocratesandGalenpreservedtotheworldthebestthusfardevelopedinmedicine，andstillbetterweretheircontributionstopharmacy：theseremainofvaluetothepresenthour。[303]
[303]ForthegreatservicesrenderedtothedevelopmentofmedicinebytheJews，seeMonteil，MedecineenFrance，p。58；
alsothehistoriansofmedicinegenerally。ForthequotationfromAlmamon，seeGibbon，vol。x，p。42。FortheservicesofbothJewsandArabians，seeBedarride，HistoiredesJuifs，p。
115；alsoSismondi，HistoiredesFrancais，tomei，p。191。FortheArabians，especially，seeRosseeuwSaint-Hilaire，Histoired’Espagne，Paris，1844，vol。iii，pp。191etseq。ForthetendencyoftheMosaicbookstoinsistonhygienicratherthantherapeuticaltreatment，anditsconsequencesamongJewishphysicians，seeSprengel，butespeciallyFredault，p。14。
VariousChristianlaymenalsoroseabovetheprevailingtheologicatmospherefarenoughtoseetheimportanceofpromotingscientificdevelopment。FirstamongthesewemaynametheEmperorCharlemagne；heandhisgreatminister，Alcuin，notonlypromotedmedicalstudiesintheschoolstheyfounded，butalsomadeprovisionfortheestablishmentofbotanicgardensinwhichthoseherbswereespeciallycultivatedwhichweresupposedtohavehealingvirtues。So，too，inthethirteenthcentury，theEmperorFrederickII，thoughunderthebanofthePope，broughttogetherinhisvariousjourneys，andespeciallyinhiscrusadingexpeditions，manyGreekandArabicmanuscripts，andtookspecialpainstohavethosewhichconcernedmedicinepreservedandstudied；healsopromotedbetterideasofmedicineandembodiedtheminlaws。
Menofsciencealsorose，inthestrictersenseoftheword，eveninthecenturiesunderthemostcompleteswayoftheologicalthoughtandecclesiasticalpower；ascience，indeed，alloyedwiththeology，butstillinfoldingpreciousgerms。OftheseweremenlikeArnoldofVillanova，BertranddeGordon，AlbertofBollstadt，BasilValentine，RaymondLully，and，aboveall，RogerBacon；allofwhomcultivatedsciencessubsidiarytomedicine，andinspiteofchargesofsorcery，withpossibilitiesofimprisonmentanddeath，keptthetorchofknowledgeburning，andpasseditontofuturegenerations。[304]
[304]Fortheprogressofsciencessubsidiarytomedicineeveninthedarkestages，seeFort，pp。374，375；alsoIsensee，GeschichtederMedicin，pp。225etseq。；alsoMonteil，p。89；
Heller，GeschichtederPhysik，vol。i，bk。3；alsoKopp，GeschichtederChemie。ForFrederickIIandhisMedicinal-Gesetz，seeBaas，p。221，butespeciallyVonRaumer，GeschichtederHohenstaufen，Leipsic，1872，vol。iii，p。259。
FromtheChurchitself，evenwhenthetheologicalatmospherewasmostdense，rosehereandtheremenwhopersistedinsomethinglikescientificeffort。Asearlyastheninthcentury，Bertharius，amonkofMonteCassino，preparedtwomanuscriptvolumesofprescriptionsselectedfromancientwriters；othermonksstudiedthemsomewhat，and，duringsucceedingages，scholarslikeHugo，AbbotofSt。Denis，——Notker，monkofSt。
Gall，——Hildegard，AbbessofRupertsberg，——Milo，ArchbishopofBeneventum，——andJohnofSt。Amand，CanonofTournay，didsomethingformedicineastheyunderstoodit。Unfortunately，theygenerallyunderstooditstheoryasamixtureofdeductionsfromScripturewithdogmasfromGalen，anditspracticeasamixtureofincantationswithfetiches。EvenPopeHonoriusIII
didsomethingfortheestablishmentofmedicalschools；buthedidsomuchmoretoplaceecclesiasticalandtheologicalfettersuponteachersandtaught，thatthevalueofhisgiftsmaywellbedoubted。Allgermsofahigherevolutionofmedicinewereforageswellkeptunderbythetheologicalspirit。AsfarbackasthesixthcenturysogreatamanasPopeGregoryIshowedhimselfhostiletothedevelopmentofthisscience。InthebeginningofthetwelfthcenturytheCouncilofRheimsinterdictedthestudyoflawandphysictomonks，andamultitudeofothercouncilsenforcedthisdecree。AboutthemiddleofthesamecenturySt。
Bernardstillcomplainedthatmonkshadtoomuchtodowithmedicine；andafewyearslaterwehavedecretalslikethoseofPopeAlexanderIIIforbiddingmonkstostudyorpractiseit。Formanygenerationsthereappearevidencesofadesireamongthemorebroad-mindedchurchmentoallowthecultivationofmedicalscienceamongecclesiastics：PopeslikeClementIIIandSylvesterIIseemtohavefavouredthis，andweevenhearofanArchbishopofCanterburyskilledinmedicine；butinthebeginningofthethirteenthcenturytheFourthCounciloftheLateranforbadesurgicaloperationstobepractisedbypriests，deacons，andsubdeacons；andsomeyearslaterHonoriusIII
reiteratedthisdecreeandextendedit。In1243theDominicanorderforbademedicaltreatisestobebroughtintotheirmonasteries，andfinallyallparticipationofecclesiasticsinthescienceandartofmedicinewaseffectuallyprevented。[305]
[305]ForstatementsastothesedecreesofthehighestChurchandmonasticauthoritiesagainstmedicineandsurgery，seeSprengel，Baas，GeschichtederMedicin，p。204，andelsewhere；
alsoBuckle，PosthumousWorks，vol。ii，p。567。ForalonglistofChurchdignitarieswhopractisedasemi-theologicalmedicineintheMiddleAges，seeBaas，pp。204，205。ForBertharius，Hildegard，andothersmentioned，seealsoSprengelandotherhistoriansofmedicine。ForclandestinestudyandpracticeofmedicinebysundryecclesiasticsinspiteoftheprohibitionbytheChurch，seeVonRaumer，Hohenstaufen，vol。vi，p。438。Forsomeremarksonthissubjectbyaneminentandlearnedecclesiastic，seeRicker，O。S。B。，professorintheUniversityofVienna，Pastoral-Psychiatrie，1894，pp。12，13。
VII。THEOLOGICALDISCOURAGEMENTOFMEDICINE。
Whilevariouschurchmen，buildingbetterthantheyknew，thusdidsomethingtolayfoundationsformedicalstudy，theChurchauthorities，asarule，didevenmoretothwartitamongtheverymenwho，hadtheybeenallowedliberty，wouldhavecultivatedittothehighestadvantage。
Then，too，wefindcroppingouteverywherethefeelingthat，sincesupernaturalmeansaresoabundant，thereissomethingirreligiousinseekingcurebynaturalmeans：everandanonwehaveappealstoScripture，andespeciallytothecaseofKingAsa，whotrustedtophysiciansratherthantothepriestsofJahveh，andsodied。HenceitwasthatSt。Bernarddeclaredthatmonkswhotookmedicinewereguiltyofconductunbecomingtoreligion。EventheSchoolofSalernowasheldinaversionbymultitudesofstrictchurchmen，sinceitprescribedrulesfordiet，therebyindicatingabeliefthatdiseasesarisefromnaturalcausesandnotfromthemaliceofthedevil：moreover，inthemedicalschoolsHippocrateswasstudied，andhehadespeciallydeclaredthatdemoniacalpossessionis“nowisemoredivine，nowisemoreinfernal，thananyotherdisease。”Henceitwas，doubtless，thattheLateranCouncil，aboutthebeginningofthethirteenthcentury，forbadephysicians，underpainofexclusionfromtheChurch，toundertakemedicaltreatmentwithoutcallinginecclesiasticaladvice。
ThisviewwaslongcherishedintheChurch，andnearlytwohundredandfiftyyearslaterPopePiusVreviveditbyrenewingthecommandofPopeInnocentandenforcingitwithpenalties。
NotonlydidPopePiusorderthatallphysiciansbeforeadministeringtreatmentshouldcallin“aphysicianofthesoul。”
ontheground，ashedeclares，that“bodilyinfirmityfrequentlyarisesfromsin。”butheorderedthat，ifattheendofthreedaysthepatienthadnotmadeconfessiontoapriest，themedicalmanshouldceasehistreatment，underpainofbeingdeprivedofhisrighttopractise，andofexpulsionfromthefacultyifhewereaprofessor，andthateveryphysicianandprofessorofmedicineshouldmakeoaththathewasstrictlyfulfillingtheseconditions。
Outofthisfeelinghadgrownupanotherpractice，whichmadethedevelopmentofmedicinestillmoredifficult——theclassingofscientificmengenerallywithsorcerersandmagic-mongers：fromthislargelyrosethechargeofatheismagainstphysicians，whichripenedintoaproverb，“Wheretherearethreephysicianstherearetwoatheists。”[306]
[306]“Ubisunttresmediciibisuntduoathei。”ForthebullofPiusV，seetheBullariumRomanum，ed。Gaude，Naples，1882，tom。
vii，pp。430，431。
Magicwassocommonachargethatmanyphysiciansseemedtobelieveitthemselves。InthetenthcenturyGerbert，afterwardknownasPopeSylvesterII，wasatoncesuspectedofsorcerywhenheshowedadispositiontoadoptscientificmethods；intheeleventhcenturythischargenearlycostthelifeofConstantineAfricanuswhenhebrokefromthebeatenpathofmedicine；inthethirteenth，itgaveRogerBacon，oneofthegreatestbenefactorsofmankind，manyyearsofimprisonment，andnearlybroughthimtothestake：thesecasesaretypicalofverymany。
StillanotherchargeagainstphysicianswhoshowedatalentforinvestigationwasthatofMohammedanismandAverroism；andPetrarchstigmatizedAverroistsas“menwhodenyGenesisandbarkatChrist。”[307]
[307]ForAverroes，seeRenan，Averroesetl’Averroisme，Paris，1861，pp。327-335。Foraperfectlyjuststatementoftheonlycircumstanceswhichcanjustifyachargeofatheism，seeRev。Dr。
Deems，inPopularScienceMonthly，February，1876。
Theeffectofthiswidespreadecclesiasticaloppositionwas，thatformanycenturiesthestudyofmedicinewasrelegatedmainlytothelowestorderofpractitioners。Therewas，indeed，oneorthodoxlineofmedicalevolutionduringthelaterMiddleAges：