RayarguedthegoodnessandwisdomofGodfromtheadaptationoftheanimalsnotonlytoman’susesbuttotheirownlivesandsurroundings。
　　InthefirstyearsoftheeighteenthcenturyDr。NehemiahGrew，oftheRoyalSociety，publishedhisCosmologiaSacratorefuteanti-scripturalopinionsbyproducingevidencesofcreativedesign。Discussing“theendsofProvidence。”hesays，“Acrane，whichisscurvymeat，laysbuttwoeggsintheyear，butapheasantandpartridge，bothexcellentmeat，layandhatchfifteenortwenty。”Hepointstothefactthat“thoseofvaluewhichlayfewatatimesittheoftener，asthewoodcockandthedove。”HebreaksdecidedlyfromthedoctrinethatnoxiousthingsinNaturearecausedbysin，andshowsthatthey，too，areuseful；that，“ifnettlessting，itistosecureanexcellentmedicineforchildrenandcattle“；that，“ifthebramblehurtsman，itmakesallthebetterhedge“；andthat，“ifitchancestopricktheowner，ittearsthethief。”“Weasels，kites，andotherhurtfulanimalsinduceustowatchfulness；thistlesandmoles，togoodhusbandry；liceobligeustocleanlinessinourbodies，spidersinourhouses，andthemothinourclothes。”Thisveryoptimisticview，triumphingoverthetheologicaltheoryofnoxiousanimalsandplantsaseffectsofsin，whichprevailedwithsomuchforcefromSt。AugustinetoWesley，wasdevelopedintonoblerformduringthecenturybyvariousthinkers，andespeciallybyArchdeaconPaley，whoseNaturalTheologyexercisedapowerfulinfluencedowntorecenttimes。Thesametendencyappearedinothercountries，thoughvariousphilosophersshowedweakpointsintheargument，andGoethemadesportofitinanotedverse，praisingtheforethoughtoftheCreatorinforeordainingthecorktreetofurnishstoppersforwine-bottles。
　　ShortlybeforethemiddleofthenineteenthcenturythemainmovementculminatedintheBridgewaterTreatises。PursuanttothewilloftheeighthEarlofBridgewater，thePresidentoftheRoyalSocietyselectedeightpersons，eachtoreceiveathousandpoundssterlingforwritingandpublishingatreatiseonthe“power，wisdom，andgoodnessofGod，asmanifestedinthecreation。”Ofthese，theleadingessaysinregardtoanimatedNaturewerethoseofThomasChalmers，onTheAdaptationofExternalNaturetotheMoralandIntellectualConditionofMan；
　　ofSirCharlesBell，onTheHandasevincingDesign；ofRoget，onAnimalandVegetablePhysiologywithreferencetoNaturalTheology；andofKirby，onTheHabitsandInstinctsofAnimalswithreferencetoNaturalTheology。
　　BesidesthesethereweretreatisesbyWhewell，Buckland，Kidd，andProut。Theworkwaswelldone。Itwasamarkedadvanceonallthathadappearedbefore，inmatter，method，andspirit。
　　Lookingbackuponitnowwecanseethatitwasprovisional，butthatitwasnonethelessfruitfulintruth，andwemaywellrememberDarwin’sremarkonthestimulatingeffectofmistakenTHEORIES，ascomparedwiththesterilizingeffectofmistakenOBSERVATIONS：mistakenobservationsleadmenastray，mistakentheoriessuggesttruetheories。
　　Aneffortmadeinsonobleaspiritcertainlydoesnotdeservetheridiculethat，inourownday，hassometimesbeenlavisheduponit。Curiously，indeed，oneofthemostcontemptuousofthesecriticismshasbeenrecentlymadebyoneofthemoststrenuousdefendersoforthodoxy。Nolesseminentastandard-bearerofthefaiththantheRev。Prof。Zoecklersaysofthismovementtodemonstratecreativepurposeanddesign，andofthemenwhotookpartinit，“Theearthappearedintheirrepresentationofitlikeagreatclothingshopandsoupkitchen，andGodasaglorifiedrationalisticprofessor。”SuchastatementasthisisfarfromjusttotheconceptionsofsuchmenasButler，Paley，andChalmers，nomatterhowfullythethinkingworldhasnowoutlivedthem。[17]
　　[17]Foraveryvaluableandinterestingstudyontheoldideaofthegenerationofinsectsfromcarrion，seeOsten-Sacken，ontheOxen-bornBeesoftheAncients，Heidelberg，1894；forRay，seetheworkcited，London，1827，p。153；forGrew，seeCosmologiaSacra，oraDiscourseontheUniverse，asitistheCreatureandKingdomofGod；chieflywrittentodemonstratetheTruthandExcellencyoftheBible，byDr。NehemiahGrew，FellowoftheCollegeofPhysiciansandoftheRoyalSocietyofLondon，1701；
　　forPaleyandtheBridgewaterTreatises，seetheusualeditions；
　　alsoLange，HistoryofRationalism。Goethe’scoupletranasfollows：
　　“WelcheVerehrungverdientderWeltenerschopfer，derGnadig，AlserdenKorkbaumerschuf，gleichauchdieStopfelerfand。”
　　ForthequotationfromZoeckler，seehisworkalreadycited，vol。
　　ii，pp。74，440。
　　But，nobleastheworkofthesemenwas，thefoundationoffactonwhichtheyreareditbecameevidentlymoreandmoreinsecure。
　　Forasfarbackastheseventeenthcenturyacutetheologianshadbeguntodiscerndifficultiesmoreseriousthananythathadbeforeconfrontedthem。Moreandmoreitwasseenthatthenumberofdifferentspecieswasfargreaterthantheworldhadhithertoimagined。Greaterandgreaterhadbecometheolddifficultyinconceivingthat，oftheseinnumerablespecies，eachhadbeenspeciallycreatedbytheAlmightyhand；thateachhadbeenbroughtbeforeAdambytheAlmightytobenamed；andthateach，incouplesorinsevens，hadbeengatheredbyNoahintotheark。ButthedifficultiesthussuggestedwereasnothingcomparedtothoseraisedbytheDISTRIBUTIONofanimals。
　　EveninthefirstdaysoftheChurchthishadarousedseriousthought，andaboveallinthegreatmindofSt。Augustine。InhisCityofGodhehadstatedthedifficultyasfollows：“Butthereisaquestionaboutallthesekindsofbeasts，whichareneithertamedbyman，norspringfromtheearthlikefrogs，suchaswolvesandothersofthatsort，……astohowtheycouldfindtheirwaytotheislandsafterthatfloodwhichdestroyedeverylivingthingnotpreservedintheark……Some，indeed，mightbethoughttoreachislandsbyswimming，incasethesewereverynear；butsomeislandsaresoremotefromcontinentallandsthatitdoesnotseempossiblethatanycreaturecouldreachthembyswimming。Itisnotanincrediblething，either，thatsomeanimalsmayhavebeencapturedbymenandtakenwiththemtothoselandswhichtheyintendedtoinhabit，inorderthattheymighthavethepleasureofhunting；anditcannotbedeniedthatthetransfermayhavebeenaccomplishedthroughtheagencyofangels，commandedorallowedtoperformthislabourbyGod。”
　　ButthisdifficultyhadnowassumedamagnitudeofwhichSt。
　　Augustineneverdreamed。MostpowerfulofallagenciestoincreaseitwerethevoyagesofColumbus，VascodaGama，Magellan，AmerigoVespucci，andothernavigatorsoftheperiodofdiscovery。Stillmoreseriousdiditbecomeasthegreatislandsofthesouthernseaswereexplored。Everynavigatorbroughthometidingsofnewspeciesofanimalsandofracesofmenlivinginpartsoftheworldwherethetheologians，relyingonthestatementofSt。Paulthatthegospelhadgoneintoalllands，hadforagesdeclaredtherecouldbenone；untilfinallyitovertaxedeventhetheologicalimaginationtoconceiveofangels，inobediencetothedivinecommand，distributingthevariousanimalsovertheearth，droppingthemegatheriuminSouthAmerica，thearcheopteryxinEurope，theornithorhynchusinAustralia，andtheopossuminNorthAmerica。
　　ThefirststrikingevidenceofthisnewdifficultywasshownbytheeminentJesuitmissionary，JosephAcosta。InhisNaturalandMoralHistoryoftheIndies，publishedin1590，heprovedhimselfhonestandlucid。Thoughentangledinmostoftheolderscripturalviews，hebrokeawayfrommany；butthedistributionofanimalsgavehimgreattrouble。HavingshownthefutilityofSt。Augustine’sotherexplanations，hequaintlyasks：“WhocanimaginethatinsolongavoyagemenwouldetakethepainestocarrieFoxestoPeru，especiallythatkindetheycall`Acias，’
　　whichisthefilthiestIhaveseene？WhowouldelikewisesaythattheyhavecarriedTygersandLyons？Trulyitwereathingworthythelaughingattothinkeso。Itwassufficient，yea，verymuch，formendrivenagainsttheirwillesbytempest，insolongandunknowneavoyage，toescapewiththeirownelives，withoutbusyingthemselvestocarrieWoolvesandFoxes，andtonourishthematsea。”
　　Itwasundertheimpressionmadebythisnewarrayoffactsthatin1667AbrahamMiliuspublishedatGenevahisbookonTheOriginofAnimalsandtheMigrationofPeoples。Thisbookshows，likethatofAcosta，theshockandstraintowhichthediscoveryofAmericasubjectedthereceivedtheologicalschemeofthings。ItwasissuedwiththespecialapprobationoftheBishopofSalzburg，anditindicatesthepossibilitythatasolutionofthewholetroublemaybefoundinthetext，“Lettheearthbringforththelivingcreatureafterhiskind。”MiliusgoesontoshowthattheancientphilosophersagreewithMoses，andthat“theearthandthewaters，andespeciallytheheatofthesunandofthegenialsky，togetherwiththatslimyandputridqualitywhichseemstobeinherentinthesoil，mayfurnishtheoriginforfishes，terrestrialanimals，andbirds。”Ontheotherhand，heisverysevereagainstthosewhoimaginethatmancanhavehadthesameoriginwithanimals。ButthesubjectwithwhichMiliusespeciallygrapplesistheDISTRIBUTIONofanimals。HeisgreatlyexercisedbythemanyspeciesfoundinAmericaandinremoteislandsoftheocean——speciesentirelyunknownintheothercontinents——andofcourseheisespeciallytroubledbythefactthatthesespeciesexistinginthoseexceedinglyremotepartsoftheearthdonotexistintheneighbourhoodofMountArarat。Heconfessesthattoexplainthedistributionofanimalsisthemostdifficultpartoftheproblem。IfitbeurgedthatbirdscouldreachAmericabyflyingandfishesbyswimming，heasks，“Whatofthebeastswhichneitherflynorswim？”Yetevenastothebirdsheasks，“Istherenotaninfinitevarietyofwingedcreatureswhoflysoslowlyandheavily，andhavesuchahorrorofthewater，thattheywouldnotevendaretrustthemselvestoflyoverawideriver？”Astofishes，hesays。”Theyareveryaversetowanderingfromtheirnativewaters。”andheshowsthattherearenowreportedmanyspeciesofAmericanandEastIndianfishesentirelyunknownontheothercontinents，whosepresence，therefore，cannotbeexplainedbyanytheoryofnaturaldispersion。
　　Ofthosewhosuggestthatlandanimalsmayhavebeendispersedovertheearthbythedirectagencyofmanforhisuseorpleasureheasks：“Whowouldliketogetdifferentsortsoflions，bears，tigers，andotherferociousandnoxiouscreaturesonboardship？whowouldtrusthimselfwiththem？andwhowouldwishtoplantcoloniesofsuchcreaturesinnew，desirablelands？”
　　Hisconclusionisthatplantsandanimalstaketheirorigininthelandswhereintheyarefound；anopinionwhichhesupportsbyquotingfromthetwonarrationsinGenesispassageswhichimplygenerativeforceinearthandwater。
　　Butintheeighteenthcenturymattershadbecomeevenworseforthetheologicalview。TomeetthedifficultytheeminentBenedictine，DomCalmet，inhisCommentary，expressedthebeliefthatallthespeciesofagenushadoriginallyformedonespecies，andhedweltonthisviewasonewhichenabledhimtoexplainthepossibilityofgatheringallanimalsintotheark。
　　Thisidea，dangerousasitwastothefabricoforthodoxy，andinvolvingaprofoundseparationfromthegeneraldoctrineoftheChurch，seemstohavebeenabroadamongthinkingmen，forwefindinthelatterhalfofthesamecenturyevenLinnaeusincliningtoconsiderit。Itwastime，indeed，thatsomenewtheologicaltheorybeevolved；thegreatLinnaeushimself，inspiteofhisfamousdeclarationfavouringthefixityofspecies，haddealtadeath-blowtotheoldtheory。InhisSystemaNaturae，publishedinthemiddleoftheeighteenthcentury，hehadenumeratedfourthousandspeciesofanimals，andthedifficultiesinvolvedinthenamingofeachofthembyAdamandinbringingthemtogetherinthearkappearedtoallthinkingmenmoreandmoreinsurmountable。
　　Whatwasmoreembarrassing，thenumberofdistinctspecieswentonincreasingrapidly，indeedenormously，until，asaneminentzoologicalauthorityofourowntimehasdeclared，“foreveryoneofthespeciesenumeratedbyLinnaeus，morethanfiftykindsareknowntothenaturalistofto-day，andthenumberofspeciesstillunknowndoubtlessfarexceedsthelistofthoserecorded。”
　　AlreadytherewerepremonitionsofthestrainmadeuponScripturebyrequiringahundredandsixtydistinctmiraculousinterventionsoftheCreatortoproducethehundredandsixtyspeciesoflandshellsfoundinthelittleislandofMadeiraalone，andfourteenhundreddistinctinterventionstoproducetheactualnumberofdistinctspeciesofasinglewell-knownshell。
　　Evermoreandmoredifficult，too，becamethequestionofthegeographicaldistributionofanimals。Asnewexplorationsweremadeinvariouspartsoftheworld，thisdangertothetheologicalviewwentonincreasing。TheslothsinSouthAmericasuggestedpainfulquestions：HowcouldanimalssosluggishhavegotawayfromtheneighbourhoodofMountAraratsocompletelyandhavetravelledsofar？