Allthisdoesnotsufficetorenderthisorderdetrimentalorevenuseless。Inreality，thelocalchiefwhonolongerperformshisancientservicemayperformanewoneinexchangeforit。Institutedforwarwhenlifewasmilitant，hemayserveinquiettimeswhentherégimeispacific，whiletheadvantagetothenationisgreatinwhichthistransformationisaccomplished；for，retainingitschiefs，itisrelievedoftheuncertainandperilousoperationwhichconsistsincreatingothers。Thereisnothingmoredifficulttoestablishthanagovernment，thatistosay，astablegovernment:thisinvolvesthecommandofsomeandtheobedienceofall，whichisagainstnature。
Thatamaninhisstudy，oftenafeebleoldperson，shoulddisposeofthelivesandpropertyoftwentyorthirtymillionmen，mostofwhomhehasneverseen；thatheshouldorderthemtopayawayatenthorafifthoftheirincomeandtheyshoulddoit；thatheshouldorderthemtogoandslaughterorbeslaughteredandthattheyshouldgo；thattheyshouldthuscontinuefortenyears，twentyyears，througheverykindoftrial，defeat，miseryandinvasion，aswiththeFrenchunderLouisXIV，theEnglishunderPitt，thePrussiansunderFrederickII。，withouteitherseditionorinternaldisturbances，iscertainlyamarvelousthing。And，forapeopletoremainfreeitisessentialthattheyshouldbereadytodothisalways。Neitherthisfidelitynorthisconcordisduetosoberreflection（laraisonraisonnante）；reasonistoovacillatingandtoofeebletobringaboutsuchauniversalandenergeticresult。Abandonedtoitselfandsuddenlyrestoredtoanaturalcondition，thehumanflockiscapableonlyofagitation，ofmutualstrifeuntilpureforceatlengthpredominates，asinbarbaroustimes，anduntil，amidstthedustandoutcry，somemilitaryleaderrisesupwhois，generally，abutcher。Historicallyconsidereditisbettertocontinuesothantobeginoveragain。Hence，especiallywhenthemajorityisuncultivated，itisbeneficialtohavechiefsdesignatedbeforehandthroughthehereditarycustombywhichpeoplefollowthem，andthroughthespecialeducationbywhichtheyarequalified。Inthiscasethepublichasnoneedtoseekforthemtoobtainthem。Theyarealreadyathand，ineachcanton，visible，acceptedbeforehand；theyareknownbytheirnames，theirtitle，theirfortune，theirwayofliving；deferencetotheirauthorityisestablished。Theyarealmostalwaysdeservingofthisauthority；bornandbroughtuptoexerciseittheyfindintradition，infamilyexampleandinfamilypride，powerfultiesthatnourishpublicspiritinthem；thereissomeprobabilityoftheircomprehendingthedutieswithwhichtheirprerogativeendowsthem。
Suchistherenovation，whichthefeudalrégimeadmitsof。Theancientchieftaincanstillguaranteehispre—eminencebyhisservices，andremainpopularwithoutceasingtobeprivileged。Onceacaptaininhisdistrictandapermanentgendarme，heistobecometheresidentandbeneficentproprietor，thevoluntarypromoterofusefulundertakings，obligatoryguardianofthepoor，thegratuitousadministratorandjudgeofthecanton，theunsalarieddeputyoftheking，thatistosay，aleaderandprotectoraspreviously，throughanewsystemofpatronageaccommodatedtonewcircumstances。Localmagistrateandcentralrepresentative，thesearehistwoprincipalfunctions，and，ifweextendourobservationbeyondFrancewefindthatheexerciseseitheroneortheother，orbothtogether。
Notes:
[1]。Seenote1attheendofthevolume[2]。Oneleague（lieu）ca。4km。（SR。）
[3]。Suger"ViedeLouisVI。，"chap。VIII。—PhilippeI。becamemasteroftheChateaudeMontlhéryonlybymarryingoneofhissonstotheheiressofthefief。Hethusaddressedhissuccessor:"Mychild，takegoodcaretokeepthistowerofwhichtheannoyanceshavemademegrowold，andwhosefraudsandtreasonshavegivenmenopeacenorrest’。
[4]。LéoncedeLavergne，"LesAssembléesPovinciales，"p。19。—
Consulttheofficialstatementoftheprovincialassemblies，andespeciallythechapterstreatingofthevingtièmes（anoldtaxofone—
twentiethonincomes。—TR。）
[5]。AreportmadebyTreilhardinthenameoftheecclesiasticcommittee，（Moniteur，19thDecember，1789）:ThereligiousestablishmentsforsaleinParisalonewerevaluedat150millions。
Later（inthesessionofthe13thFebruary，1791），Amelotestimatesthepropertysoldandtobesold，notincludingforests，at3，700
millions。M。deBouilléestimatestherevenueoftheclergyat180
millions。（Mémoires，p。44）。[FrenchcurrencyissowellknowntoreadersingeneralitisnotdeemednecessarytoreducestatementsofthiskindtotheEnglishorAmericanstandard，exceptinspecialcases。—TR。）
[6]AreportbyChassetonTithes，April，1790。Outof123
millions23goforthecostsofcollection:but，inestimatingtherevenueofanindividualthesumshepaystohisintendants，overseersandcashiersarenotdeducted。—Talleyrand（Octoberl0，1789）
estimatestherevenueofrealpropertyat70millionsanditsvalueat2，100millions。Onexaminationhoweverbothcapitalandrevenuearefoundconsiderablylargerthanatfirstsupposed。（ReportsofTreilbardandChasset）。Moreover，inhisvaluation，Talleyrandleftouthabitationsandtheirenclosuresaswellasareservationofone—
fourthoftheforests。Besidesthistheremustbeincludedintherevenuebefore1789theseigniorialrightsenjoyedbytheChurch。
Finally，accordingtoArthurYoung，therentswhichtheFrenchproprietorreceivedwerenottwoandahalfpercent。asnowadaysbutthreeandthreequarterspercent—Thenecessityofdoublingthefigurestoobtainapresentmoneyvaluationissupportedbyinnumerablefacts，andamongothersthepriceofaday’slabor，whichatthattimewasnineteensous。（ArthurYoung）。（Today，in1999，inFrancetheminimumlegaldailywageisaround300francs。20sousconstitutedafranc。SothesumsreferredtobyTaineundertheRevolutionmustbemultipliedwithatleast300inordertocomparethemwith1990values。Toobtaindollarsmultiplywith50。SR。）
[7]。Nationalarchives，amongthepapersoftheecclesiasticalcommittee，box（portfolios）10，11，13，25。—Beugnot’sMemoirs，I。
49，79。—Delbos，"L’EglisedeFrance，"I。399。—DucdeLévis，"SouvenirsetPortraits，"p。156。
[8]。LéoncedeLavergne，"économieRuraleenFrance，"p。24。—
Perin，"LaJeunessedeRobespierre，"（StatementsofgrievancesinArtois），p。317。（InFrench"cahiersdesdoleances"—statementsoflocalcomplaintsandexpectations—preparedalloverFranceforusebytheirdelegatesfortheètatsGeneraux。SR。）
[9]。Boiteau，"étatdelaFranceen1789，"p。47。Voltaire，"PolitiqueetLegislation，"thepetitionoftheserfsofSt。Claude。
[10]。Necker，"Del’AdministrationdesFinances，"II。272。
[11]。DeBouillé，"Mémoires，"p。41。Itmustnotbeforgottenthatthesefiguresmustbedoubledtoshowcorrespondingsumsofthepresentday。10，000livres（francs）rentalin1766equalinvalue20，000in1825。（MadamedeGenlis，"Memoirs，"chap。IX）。ArthurYoung，visitingachateauinSeine—et—Marne，writes:"IhavebeenspeakingtoMadamedeGuerchy；andIhavelearnedfromthisconversationthattoliveinachateaulikethiswithsixmenservants，fivemaids，eighthorses，agardenandaregulartable，withcompany，butnevergotoParis，mightbedonefor1，000louisperannum。ItwouldinEnglandcost2，000。AtthepresentdayinFrance24，000francswouldbe50，000andmore。"ArthurYoungadds:"Therearegentlemen（noblesse）thatliveinthiscountryon6，000or8000andkeeptwomen，twomaids，threehorsesandacabriolet。"Todothisnowadayswouldrequirefrom20，000to25，000。—Ithasbecomemuchmoreexpensive，especiallyduetotherail—ways，toliveintheprovinces。"AccordingtomyfriendsduRouergue，"hesaysagain，"I
couldliveatMilhauwithmyfamilyinthegreatestabundanceon100
louis（2，000francs）；therearenoblefamiliessupportingthemselvesonrevenuesoffiftyandeventwenty—fivelouis。"AtMilhau，today，pricesaretripleandevenquadruple。—InParis，ahouseintheRueSt。Honorewhichwasrentedfor6，000francsin1787isnowrentedfor16，000francs。
[12]。"Rapportsdel’Agenceduclergéde1780à1785。"InrelationtothefeudalrightstheabolitionofwhichisdemandedinBoncerf’swork，thechancellorSéguiersaidin1775:"OurKingshavethemselvesdeclaredthattheyare，fortunately，impotenttomakeanyattackonproperty。"
[13]。LéoncedeLavergne，"LesAssembléesprovinciales，"p。296。
ReportofM。SchwendtonAlsacein1787。—Warroquier，"EtatdelaFranceen1789，"I。541。—Necker，"Del’AdministrationdesFinances，"
I。19，102。—Turgot，（collectionofeconomists），"Réponseauxobservationsdugardedessceauxsurlasuppressiondescorvées，"I。
559。
[14]。Thistermembracesvarioustaxesoriginatinginfeudaltimes，andrenderedparticularlyburdensometothepeasantrythroughthemanagementoftheprivilegedclasses。—TR。
[15]。Thearpentmeasuresbetweenoneandoneandahalfacres。—TR
[16]。DeTocqueville，"L’AncienRégimeetlaRévolution，"p。406。
"TheinhabitantsofMontbazonhadsubjectedtotaxationthestewardsoftheduchywhichbelongedtothePrincedeRohan。Thisprincecausedthisabusetobestoppedandsucceededinrecoveringthesumof5，344
livreswhichhehadbeenmadetopayunlawfullyunderthisright"
[17]。Necker，"AdministrationdesFinances:"ordinarytaxation（lataille）produced91millions；lesvingtièmes76，500，000；thecapitationtax41，500，000。
[18]。Raudot，"LaFranceavantlaRévolution，"p。51。—DeBouillé，"Mémoires，"p。44。—Necker，"De1’AdministrationdesFinances，"II，p。181。TheaboverelatestowhatwascalledtheclergyofFrance，（116dioceses）。Theclergycalledforeign，consistedofthatofthethreebishopricsandoftheregionsconqueredsinceLouisXIV；ithadaseparaterégimeandpaidsomewhatlikethenobles。—ThedécimeswhichtheclergyofFranceleviedonitspropertyamountedtoasumof10，500，000livres。
[19]。DeToqueville，ib。104，381，407。—Necker，ib。I。102。—
Boiteau，ib。362。—DeBouillé，ib。26，41，andthefollowingpages。
Turgot，ib。passim。—Cf。passim。—Cf。BookV，ch。2，onthetaillage。
[20]。See"LaFranceecclésiastique，1788，"forthesedetails。
[21]。OfficialstatementsandmanuscriptreportsoftheStates—
Generalof1789。"Archivesnationales，"vol。LXXXVIIIpp。23，85，121，122]，152。Procès—verbalofJanuary12，1789。
[22]。Necker，"Del’AdministrationdesFinances，"V。II。pp。271，272。"ThehouseOrleans，hesays，isinpossessionoftheexcises。"Heestimatesthistaxat51，000，000fortheentirekingdom。
[23]。Beugnot，"Mémoires，"V。I。p。77。ObservetheceremonialsystemwiththeDucdePenthièvre，chaptersI。，III。TheDucd’Orléansorganizesachapterandbandsofcanonesses。ThepostofchancellortotheDucd’Orléansisworth100，000livresperannum，（"GustaveIII。etlacourdeFrance，"byGeffroy，I。410。）
[24]。DeTocqueville，ibid。p。40。—Renauldon，advocateinthebailiwickofIssoudun，"Traitéhistoriqueetpratiquedesdroitsseigneuriaux，1765，"pp。8，10，81andpassim。—StatementofgrievanceofamagistrateoftheChateletonseigniorialjudgments，1789。—Duvergier，"CollectiondesLois，"Decreesofthe15—28March，1790，ontheabolitionofthefeudalrégime，MerlinofDouai，reporter，I。114Decreesof19—23July，1790，I。293。Decreesofthe13—20April，1791，（I。295。）
[25]。Nationalarchives，G，300，（1787）。"M。deBoullongne，seigniorofMontereau，herepossessesatoll—rightconsistingof2
deniers（farthings）perox，cow，calforpig；1persheep；2foraladenanimal；1souand8deniersforeachfour—wheeledvehicle；5
deniersforatwo—wheeledvehicle，and10deniersforavehicledrawnbythree，four，orfivehorses；besidesataxof10deniersforeachbarge，boatorskiffascendingtheriver；thesametaxforeachteamofhorsesdraggingtheboatsup；1denierforeachemptycaskgoingup。"AnalogoustaxesareenforcedatVarennesforthebenefitoftheDucdeChatelet，seigniorofVarennes。
[26]。Nationalarchives，K，1453，No。1448:AletterbyM。deMeulan，datedJune12，1789。ThistaxongrainbelongedatthattimetotheComted’Artois。—Chateaubriand，"Mémoires，"I。73。
[27]。Renauldon，ibid……249，258。"Therearefewseignioraltownswhichhaveacommunalslaughter—house。Thebutchermustobtainspecialpermissionfromtheseignior。"—Thetaxongrindingwasanaverageofasixteenth。Inmanyprovinces，Anjou，Berry，Maine，Brittany，therewasalord’smillforclothsandbarks。
[28]。Renauldon，ibid……pp。181，200，203；observethathewrotethisin1765。LouisXVI。suppressedserfdomontheroyaldomainsin1778；andmanyoftheseigniors，especiallyinFranche—Comté，followedhisexample。Beugnot，"Mémoires，"V。I。p。142。—Voltaire，"MémoireauroisurlesserfsduJura。"—"MémoiresdeBailly，"II。214，accordingtoanofficialreportoftheNat。Ass。，August7，1789。I
relyonthisreportandonthebookofM。Clerget，curateofOnansinFranche—Comtéwhoismentionedinit。M。Clergetsaysthattherearestillatthistime（1789）1，500，000subjectsofthekinginastateofservitudebuthebringsforwardnoproofstosupportthesefigures。
Neverthelessitiscertainthatthenumberofserfsandmortmainsisstillverygreat。Nationalarchives，H；723，registersonmortmainsinFranche—Comtéin1788；H。200，registersbyAmelotonBurgundyin1785。"Inthesub—delegationofCharollestheinhabitantsseemacenturybehindtheage；beingsubjecttofeudaltenures，suchasmort—
main，neithermindnorbodyhaveanyplay。Theredemptionofmortmain，ofwhichthekinghimselfhassettheexample，hasbeenputatsuchanexorbitantpricebylaymen，thattheunfortunatesuffererscannot，andwillnotbeabletosecureit。
[29]。Boiteau，ibid……p。25，（April，1790），—Beugnot，"Mémoires，"
I。142。
[30]。SeeEND—NOTE2attheendofthevolumeCHAPTERIII。LOCALSERVICESDUEBYTHEPRIVILEGEDCLASSES。
I。ExamplesinGermanyandEngland。—TheseservicesarenotrenderedbytheprivilegedclassesinFrance。
LETusconsiderthefirstone，localgovernment。TherearecountriesatthegatesofFranceinwhichfeudalsubjection，moreburdensomethaninFrance，seemslighterbecause，intheotherscale，thebenefitscounterbalancedisadvantages。AtMunster，in1809，Beugnotfindsasovereignbishop，atownofconventsandalargeseigniorialmansion，afewmerchantsforindispensabletrade，asmallbourgeoisie，and，allaround，apeasantrycomposedofeithercolonsorserfs。Theseigniordeductsaportionofalltheircropsinprovisionsorincattle，and，attheirdeaths，aportionoftheirinheritances。
Iftheygoawaytheirpropertyreverttohim。HisservantsarechastisedlikeRussianmoujiks，andineachouthouseisatrestleforthispurpose"withoutprejudicetograverpenalties，"probablythebastinadoandthelike。But"neverdidtheculpritentertaintheslightestideaofcomplaintorappeal。"Foriftheseigniorwhipsthemasthefatheroffamilyheprotectsthem"asthefatherofafamily，evercomingtotheirassistancewhenmisfortunebefallsthem，andtakingcareofthemintheirillness。"Heprovidesanasylumfortheminoldage；helooksaftertheirwidows，andrejoiceswhentheyhaveplentyofchildren。Heisboundtothembycommonsympathiestheyareneithermiserablenoruneasy；theyknowthat，ineveryextremeorunforeseennecessity，hewillbetheirrefuge。[1]InthePrussianstatesandaccordingtothecodeofFredericktheGreat，astillmorerigorousservitudeisatonedforbysimilarobligations。Thepeasantry，withouttheirseignior’spermission，cannotalienateafield，mortgageit，cultivateitdifferently，changetheiroccupationormarry。Iftheyleavetheseignioryhecanpursuethemineverydirectionandbringthembackbyforce。Hehastherightofsurveillanceovertheirprivatelife，andhechastisesthemifdrunkorlazy。Whenyoungtheyserveforyearsasservantsinhismansion；
ascultivatorstheyowehimcorveesand，incertainplaces，threetimesaweek。But，accordingtobothlawandcustom，heisobliged"toseethattheyareeducated，tosuccortheminindigence，and，asfaraspossible，toprovidethemwiththemeansofsupport。"Accordinglyheischargedwiththedutiesofthegovernmentofwhichheenjoystheadvantages，and，undertheheavyhandwhichcurbsthem，butwhichsustainsthem，wedonotfindhissubjectsrecalcitrant。InEngland，theupperclassattainstothesameresultbyotherways。Therealsothesoilstillpaystheecclesiastictithe，strictlythetenth，whichismuchmorethaninFrance。[2]Thesquire，thenobleman，possessesastilllargerportionofthesoilthanhisFrenchneighborand，intruth，exercisesgreaterauthorityinhiscanton。Buthistenants，thelesseesandthefarmers，arenolongerhisserfs，notevenhisvassals；theyarefree。Ifhegovernsitisthroughinfluenceandnotbyvirtueofacommand。Proprietorandpatron，heisheldinrespect。
Lord—lieutenant，officerinthemilitia，administrator，justice，heisvisiblyuseful。And，aboveall，helivesathome，fromfathertoson；
hebelongstothedistrict。Heisinhereditaryandconstantrelationwiththelocalpublicthroughhisoccupationsandthroughhispleasures，throughthechaseandcaringforthepoor，throughhisfarmerswhomheadmitsathistable，andthroughhisneighborswhomhemeetsincommitteeorinthevestry。Thisshowshowtheoldhierarchiesaremaintained:itisnecessary，anditsuffices，thattheyshouldchangetheirmilitaryintoacivilorderofthingsandfindmodernemploymentforthechieftainoffeudaltimes。
II。ResidentSeigniors。
Remainsofthebeneficentfeudalspirit。—Theyarenotrigorouswiththeirtenantsbutnolongerretainthelocalgovernment。—Theirisolation。—Insignificanceormediocrityoftheirmeansofsubsistence。—Theirexpenditure。—Notinaconditiontoremitdues。—
Sentimentsofpeasantrytowardsthem。
Ifwegobackalittlewayinourhistorywefindhereandtheresimilarnobles。[3]SuchwastheDucdeSaint—Simon，fatherofthewriter，arealsovereigninhisgovernmentofBlaye，arespectedbythekinghimself。SuchwasthegrandfatherMirabeau，inhischateauofMirabeauinProvence，thehaughtiest，mostabsolute，mostintractableofmen，"demandingthattheofficerswhomheappointedinhisregimentshouldbefavorablyreceivedbythekingandbyhisministers，"
toleratingtheinspectorsonlyasamatterofform，butheroic，generous，faithful，distributingthepensionofferedtohimselfamongsixwoundedcaptainsunderhiscommand，mediatingforpoorlitigantsinthemountain，drivingoffhisgroundsthewanderingattorneyswhocometopracticetheirchicanery，"thenaturalprotectorofmanevenagainstministersandtheking。Apartyoftobaccoinspectorshavingsearchedhiscurate’shouse，hepursuesthemsoenergeticallyonhorsebackthattheyhardlyescapehimbyfordingtheDurance。
Whereupon，"hewrotetodemandthedismissaloftheofficers，declaringthatunlessthiswasdoneeverypersonemployedintheExciseshouldbedrivenintotheRhineorthesea；someofthemweredismissedandthedirectorhimselfcametogivehimsatisfaction。"
Findinghiscantonsterileandthesettlersonitidleheorganizedthemintogroups，womenandchildren，and，inthefoulestweather，putshimselfattheirhead，withhistwentyseverewoundsandnecksupportedbyapieceofsilver。Hepaysthemtoworkmakingthemclearoffthelands，whichhegivesthemonleasesofahundredyears，andhemakesthemencloseamountainofrockswithhighwallsandplantitwitholivetrees。"Noone，underanypretextcouldbeexcusedfromworkingunlesshewasill，andinthiscaseundertreatment，oroccupiedonhisownproperty，apointinwhichmyfathercouldnotbedeceived，andnobodywouldhavedaredtodoit。"Thesearethelastoffshootsoftheold，knotty，savagetrunk，butstillcapableofaffordingshelter。Otherscouldstillbefoundinremotecantons，inBrittanyandinAuvergne，veritabledistrictcommanders，andIamsurethatintimeofneedthepeasantswouldobeythemasmuchoutofrespectasfromfear。Vigorofheartandofbodyjustifiesitsownascendancy，whilethesuperabundanceofenergy，whichbeginsinviolence，endsinbeneficence。
Lessindependentandlessharshapaternalgovernmentsubsistselsewhere，ifnotinthelawatleastthroughcustom。InBrittany，nearTréguierandLannion，saysthebailiffofMirabeau，[4]"theentirestaffofthecoast—guardiscomposedofpeopleofqualityandofstockgoingbackathousandyears。Ihavenotseenoneofthemgetirritatedwithapeasant—soldier，while，atthesametime，Ihaveseenonthepartofthelatteranairoffilialrespectforthem……Itisaterrestrialparadisewithrespecttopatriarchalmanners，simplicityandtruegrandeur；theattitudeofthepeasantstowardstheseigniorsisthatofanaffectionatesonwithhisfather；andtheseigniorsintalkingwiththepeasantsusetheirrudeandcoarselanguage，andspeakonlyinakindandgenialway。Weseemutualregardbetweenmastersandservants。"Farthersouth，intheBocage，awhollyagriculturalregion，andwithnoroads，whereladiesareobligedtotravelonhorsebackandinox—carts，wheretheseigniorhasnofarmers，butonlytwenty—fiveorthirtymétayerswhoworkforhimonshares，thesupremacyofthegreatisnooffensetotheirinferiors。
Peoplelivetogetherharmoniouslywhenlivingtogetherfrombirthtodeath，familiarly，andwiththesameinterests，occupationsandpleasures；likesoldierswiththeirofficers，oncampaignsandundertents，insubordinationalthoughincompanionship，familiarityneverendangeringrespect。"Theseignioroftenvisitsthemontheirsmallfarms，[5]talkswiththemabouttheiraffairs，abouttakingcareoftheircattle，sharingintheaccidentsandmishapswhichlikewiseseriouslyaffecthim。Heattendstheirchildren’sweddingsanddrinkswiththeguests。OnSundaytherearedancesinthechateaucourt，andtheladiestakepartinthem。"Whenheisabouttohuntwolvesorboarsthecurategivesnoticeofitinthesermon；thepeasants，withtheirgunsgailyassembleattherendezvous，findingtheseigniorwhoassignsthemtheirposts，andstrictlyobservingthedirectionshegivesthem。Herearesoldiersandacaptainreadymade。Alittlelater，andoftheirownaccord，theywillchoosehimforcommandantinthenationalguard，mayorofthecommune，chiefoftheinsurrection，and，in1792，themarksmenoftheparisharetomarchunderhimagainst"theblues"as，atthisepochagainstthewolves。Sucharetheremnantsofthegoodfeudalspirit，likethescatteredremnantsofasubmergedcontinent。BeforeLouisXIV。，thespectaclewassimilarthroughoutFrance。"Theruralnobilityofformerdays，"saystheMarquisdeMirabeau，"spenttoomuchtimeovertheircups，sleptonoldchairsorpallets，mountedandstartedofftohuntbeforedaybreak，mettogetheronSt。Hubert’s，anddidnotpartuntilaftertheoctaveofSt。Martin’s……Thesenoblesledagayandhardlife，voluntarily，costingtheStateverylittle，andproducingmorethroughitsresidenceandmanurethanweoftodaywithourtastes，ourresearches，ourcholicsandourvapors……Thecustom，anditmaybesaid，theobsessionofmakingpresentstotheseigniors，iswellknown。Ihave，inmylifetime，seenthiscustomeverywheredisappear，andrightlyso……Theseigniorsarenolongerofanyconsequencetothem；isquitenaturalthattheyshouldbeforgottenbythemastheyforget……Theseigniorbeingnolongerknownonhisestateseverybodypillageshim，whichisright。"[6]Everywhere，exceptinremotecomers，theaffectionandunityofthetwoclasseshasdisappeared；
theshepherdisseparatedfromhisflock，andpastorsofthepeopleendinbeingconsidereditsparasites。
Letusfirstfollowthemintotheprovinces。Weherefindonlytheminorclassofnoblesandaportionofthoseofmediumrank；therestareinParis。[7]Thereisthesamelineofseparationinthechurch:
abbés—commendatory，bishopsandarchbishopsveryseldomliveathome。
Thegrand—vicarsandcanonsliveinthelargetowns；onlypriorsandcuratesdwellintheruraldistricts。Ordinarilytheentireecclesiasticorlaystaffisabsent；residentsarefurnishedonlybythesecondaryorinferiorgrades。Whataretheirrelationswiththepeasant？Onepointiscertain，andthatisthattheyarenotusuallyhard，norevenindifferent，tohim。Separatedbyranktheyarenotsobydistance；neighborhoodisofitselfabondamongmen。Ihavereadinvain，butIhavenotfoundthemtheruraltyrants，whichthedeclaimersoftheRevolutionportraythem。Haughtywiththebourgeoistheyaregenerallykindtothevillager。"Letanyonetravelthroughtheprovinces，"saysacontemporaryadvocate，"overtheestatesoccupiedbytheseigniors。Outofonehundredonemaybefoundtyrannizinghisdependents；alltheothers，patientlysharethemiseryofthosesubjecttotheirjurisdiction……Theygivetheirdebtorstime，remitsumsdue，andaffordthemeveryfacilityforsettlement。
Theymollifyandtemperthesometimesover—rigorousproceedingsofthefermiers，stewardsandothermenofbusiness。"[8]AnEnglishwoman，whoobservestheminProvencejustaftertheRevolution，saysthat，detestedatAix，theyaremuchbelovedontheirestates。"Whilsttheypassthefirstcitizenswiththeirheadserectandanairofdisdain，theysalutepeasantswithextremecourtesyandaffability。"Oneofthemdistributesamongthewomen，childrenandtheagedonhisdomainwoolandflaxtospinduringthebadseason，and，attheendoftheyear，heoffersaprizeofonehundredlivresforthetwobestpiecesofcloth。Innumerousinstancesthepeasant—purchasersoftheirlandvoluntarilyrestoreitforthepurchasemoney。AroundParis，nearRomainville，aftertheterriblestormof1788thereisprodigalalms—
giving；"averywealthymanimmediatelydistributesfortythousandfrancsamongthesurroundingunfortunates。"Duringthewinter，inAlsaceandinParis，everybodyisgiving；"infrontofeachhotelbelongingtoawell—knownfamilyabiglogisburningtowhich，nightandday，thepoorcancomeandwarmthemselves。"Inthewayofcharity，themonkswhoremainontheirpremisesandwitnessthepublicmiserycontinuefaithfultothespiritoftheirinstitution。OnthebirthoftheDauphintheAugustinsofMontmorilloninPoitoupayoutoftheirownresourcesthetaillesandcorvéesofnineteenpoorfamilies。In1781，inProvence，theDominicansofSaintMaximinsupportthepopulationoftheirdistrictinwhichthetempesthaddestroyedthevinesandtheolivetrees。"TheCarthusiansofParisfurnishthepoorwitheighteenhundredpoundsofbreadperweek。
Duringthewinterof1784thereisanincreaseofalms—givinginallthereligiousestablishments；theirfarmersdistributeaidamongthepoorpeopleofthecountry，and，toprovidefortheseextranecessities，manyofthecommunitiesincreasetherigoroftheirabstinences。"Whenattheendof1789，theirsuppressionisinquestion，Ifindanumberofprotestsintheirfavor，writtenbymunicipalofficers，byprominentindividuals，byacrowdofinhabitants，workmenandpeasants，andthesecolumnsofrusticsignaturesareeloquent。SevenhundredfamiliesofCateau—Cambrésis[9]
sendinapetitiontoretain"theworthyabbésandmonksoftheAbbeyofSt。Andrew，theircommonfathersandbenefactors，whofedthemduringthetempest。"TheinhabitantsofSt。Savin，inthePyrénées，"portraywithtearsofgrieftheirconsternation"attheprospectofsuppressingtheirabbeyofBenedictines，thesolecharitableorganizationinthispoorcountry。AtSierk，Thionville，"theChartreuse，"saytheleadingcitizens，"is，forus，ineveryrespect，theArkoftheLord；itisthemainsupportoffrommorethantwelvetofifteenhundredpersonswhocomeiteverydayintheweek。Thisyearthemonkshavedistributedamongstthemtheirownstoreofgrainatsixteenlivreslessthanthecurrentprice。"TheregularcanonsofDomiévre，inLorrraine，feedsixtypoorpersonstwiceaweek；itisessentialtoretainthem，saysthepetition，"outofpityandcompassionforpoorbeingswhosemiserycannotbeimagined；wheretherenoregularconventsandcanonsintheirdependency，thepoorcrywithmisery。"[10]AtMoutiers—Saint—John，nearSémurinBurgundy，theBenedictinesofSaint—Maursupporttheentirevillageandsupplyitthisyearwithfoodduringthefamine。NearMorleyinBarrois，theabbeyofAuvey，oftheCistercianorder，"wasalways，foreveryvillageintheneighborhood，abureauofcharity。"AtAirvault，inPoitou，themunicipalofficers，thecolonelofthenationalguard，andnumbersof"peasantsandinhabitants"demandtheconservationoftheregularcanonsofSt。Augustin。"Theirexistence，"saysthepetition，"isabsolutelyessential，aswellforourtownasforthecountry，andweshouldsufferanirreparablelossintheirsuppression。"ThemunicipalityandpermanentcouncilofSoissonswritesthattheestablishmentofSaint—JeandesVignes"hasalwaysearnestlyclaimeditsshareofthepubliccharges。Thisistheinstitutionwhich，intimesofcalamity，welcomeshomelesscitizensandprovidesthemwithsubsistence。ItalonebearstheexpensesoftheassemblyofthebailiwickatthetimeoftheelectionofdeputiestotheNationalAssembly。AcompanyoftheregimentofArmagnacisactuallylodgedunderitsroof。Thisinstitutionisalwaysfoundwhereversacrificesaretobemade。"Inscoresofplacesdeclarationsaremadethatthemonksare"thefathersofthepoor。"InthedioceseofAuxerre，duringthesummerof1789，theBernardinesofRigny"strippedthemselvesofalltheypossessedinfavoroftheinhabitantsofneighboringvillages:bread，grain，moneyandothersupplies，haveallbeenlavishedonabouttwelvehundredpersonswho，formorethansixweeks，neverfailedtopresentthemselvesattheirdoordaily……Loans，advancesmadeonfarms，creditwiththepurveyorsofthehouse，allhascontributedtofacilitatingtheirmeansforrelievingthepeople。"
Iomitmanyothertraitsequallyforcible；weseethattheecclesiasticalandlayseigniorsarenotsimpleegoistswhentheyliveathome。Maniscompassionateofillsofwhichheisawitness；
absenceisnecessarytodeadentheirvividimpression；theymovetheheartwhentheeyecontemplatesthem。Familiarity，moreover，engenderssympathy；onecannotremaininsensibletothetrialsofapoormantowhom，forovertwentyyears，onesaysgood—morningeverydayonpassinghim，withwhoselifeoneisacquainted，whoisnotanabstractunitintheimagination，astatisticalcipher，butasorrowingsoulandasufferingbody。—Andsomuchthemorebecause，sincethewritingsofRousseauandtheeconomists，aspiritofhumanity，dailygrowingstronger，morepenetratingandmoreuniversal，hasarisentosoftentheheart。Henceforththepoorarethoughtof，anditisesteemedanhonortothinkofthem。WehaveonlytoreadtheregistersoftheStates—General[11]toseethatspiritofphilanthropyspreadsfromPariseventothechateauxandabbeysoftheprovinces。Iamsatisfiedthat，exceptforafewcountrysquires，eitherhuntsmenordrinkers，carriedawaybytheneedofphysicalexercise，andconfinedthroughtheirrusticitytoananimallife，mostoftheresidentseigniorsresembled，infactorinintention，thegentrywhomMarmontel，inhismoraltales，thenbroughtonthestage。Fashiontookthisdirection，andpeopleinFrancealwaysfollowthefashion。Thereisnothingfeudalintheircharacters；theyare"sensible"people，mild，verycourteous，tolerablycultivated，fondofgeneralities，andeasilyandquicklyroused，andverymuchinearnest。ForinstancelikethatamiablelogiciantheMarquisdeFerrières，anoldlight—horseman，deputyfromSaumurintheNationalAssembly，authorofanarticleonTheism，amoralromanceandgenialmemoirsofnogreatimportance；
nothingcouldbemoreremotefromtheancientharshanddespotictemperament。Theywouldbegladtorelievethepeople，andtheytrytofavorthemasmuchastheycan。[12]Theyarefounddetrimental，buttheyarenotwicked；theevilisintheirsituationandnotintheircharacter。Itistheirsituation，infact，which，allowingthemrightswithoutexactingservices，debarsthemfromthepublicoffices，thebeneficialinfluence，theeffectivepatronagebywhichtheymightjustifytheiradvantagesandattachthepeasantrytothem。
Butonthisgroundthecentralgovernmenthastakentheirplace。
Foralongtimenowhavetheybeenratherfeebleagainsttheintendant，unabletoprotecttheirparish。Twentygentlemencannotnotassembleanddeliberatewithouttheking’sspecialpermission。[13]IfthoseofFranche—Comtéhappentodinetogetherandhearamassonceayear，itisthroughtolerance，andeventhenthisharmlessgroupmayassembleonlyinthepresenceoftheintendant。Separatedfromhisequals，theseignior，again，isfurtherawayfromhisinferiors。Theadministrationofthevillageisofnoconcerntohim；heisnoteventaskedwithitssupervision。Theapportionmentoftaxes，themilitiacontingent，therepairsofthechurch，thesummoningandpresidingoveraparishassembly，themakingofroads，theestablishmentofcharityworkshops，allthisistheintendant’sbusinessorthatofthecommunalofficerswhomtheintendantappointsordirects。[14]Exceptthroughhisjusticiaryrights，somuchcurtailed，theseigniorisanidlerinpublicmatters。[15]If，bychance，heshoulddesiretoactinanofficialcapacity，tomakesomereclamationforthecommunity，thebureausofadministrationwouldsoonmakehimshutup。SinceLouisXIV，thehigherofficialshavethingstheirownway；alllegislationandtheentireadministrativesystemoperateagainstthelocalseigniortodeprivehimofhisfunctionalefficiencyandtoconfinehimtohisnakedtitle。Throughthisseparationoffunctionsandtitlehisprideincreases，ashebecomeslessuseful。Hisvanitydeprivedofitsbroadpasture—ground，fallsbackonasmallone；henceforthheseeksdistinctionsandnotinfluence。Hethinksonlyofprecedenceandnotofgovernment。[16]Inshort，thelocalgovernment，inthehandsofpeasantscommandedbybureaucrats，hasbecomeacommon，offensivelotofredtape。"Hispridewouldbewoundedifhewereaskedtoattendtoit。Raisingtaxes，levyingthemilitia，regulatingthecorvées，areservileacts，theworksofasecretary。"Heaccordinglyabstains，remainsisolatedonhismanorandleavestoothersataskfromwhichheisexcludedandwhichhedisdains。Farfromprotectinghispeasantryheisscarcelyabletoprotecthimselfortopreservehisimmunities。Ortoavoidhavinghispoll—taxandvingtiémesreduced。Ortoobtainexemptionfromthemilitiaforhisdomestics，tokeephisownperson，dwelling，dependents，andhuntingandfishingrightsfromtheuniversalusurpationwhichplacesallpossessionsandallprivilegesinthehandsof"Monseigneurl’intendant"andMessieursthesub—delegates。Andthemoresobecauseheisoftenpoor。Bouillé
estimatesthatalltheoldfamilies，savetwoorthreehundred，areruined。[17]IRouergueseveralofthemliveonanincomeoffiftyandeventwenty—fivelouis，（1000and500francs）。InLimousin，saysanintendantatthebeginningofthecentury，outofseveralthousandstherearenotfifteenwhohavetwentythousandlivresincome。InBerry，towards1754，"three—fourthsofthemdieofhunger。"InFranche—Comtéthefraternitytowhichwehavealludedappearsinahumorouslight，"afterthemasseachonereturningtohisdomicile，someonfootandothersontheirRosinantes。"InBrittany"lotsofgentlemenfoundasexcisemen，onthefarmsorinthelowestoccupations。"OneM。delaMorandaisbecomestheoverseerofanestate。Acertainfamilywithnothingbutasmallfarm"attestsitsnobilityonlybythepigeon—house；itliveslikethepeasants，eatingnothingbutbrownbread。"Anothergentleman，awidower，"passeshistimeindrinking，livinglicentiouslywithhisservants，andcoveringbutter—potswiththehandsomesttitle—deedsofhislineage。"AllthechevaliersdeChateaubriand，"saysthefather，"weredrunkardsandbeatersofhares。"Hehimselfjustmakesshifttoliveinamiserableway，withfivedomestics，ahoundandtwooldmares"inachateaucapableofaccommodatingahundredseigniorswiththeirsuites。"Hereandthereinthevariousmemoirsweseethesestrangesuperannuatedfigurespassingbeforetheeye，forinstance，inBurgundy，"gentlemenhuntsmenwearinggaitersandhob—nailedshoes，carryinganoldrustyswordundertheirarmsdyingwithhungerandrefusingtowork。"[18]
Elsewhereweencounter"M。dePérignan，withhisredgarments，wigandgingerface，havingdrystonewailsbuiltonhisdomain，andgettingintoxicatedwiththeblacksmithoftheplace；"relatedtoCardinalFleury，heismadethefirstDucdeFleury。—Everythingcontributestothisdecay，thelaw，habitsandcustoms，and，aboveall，therightofprimogeniture。Institutedforthepurposeofmaintainingundividedsovereigntyandpatronageitruinsthenoblessincesovereigntyandpatronagehavenomaterialtoworkon。"InBrittany，"saysChateaubriand，"theeldersonsofthenoblessweptawaytwo—thirdsoftheproperty，whiletheyoungersonssharedinone—thirdofthepaternalheritage。"[19]Consequently，"theyoungersonsofyoungersonssooncometothesharingofapigeon，rabbit，houndandfowling—
piece。Theentirefortuneofmygrandfatherdidnotexceedfivethousandlivresincome，ofwhichhiseldersonhadtwo—thirds，threethousandthreehundredlivres，leavingonethousandsixhundredandsixty—sixlivresforthethreeyoungerones，uponwhichsumtheelderstillhadapréciputclaim。"[20]Thisfortune，whichcrumblesawayanddiesout，theyneitherknowhow，noraretheydisposed，torestorebycommerce，manufacturesorproperadministrationofit；itwouldbederogatory。"Highandmightyseigniorsofdove—cote，frog—pondandrabbit—warren，"themoresubstancetheylackthemorevaluetheysetonthename。—Addtoallthiswintersojournintown，theceremonialandexpensescausedbyvanityandsocialrequirements，andthevisitstothegovernorandtheintendant。AmanmustbeeitheraGermanoranEnglishmantobeabletopassthreegloomy，rainymonthsinacastleoronafarm，alone，incompanionshipwithpeasants，attheriskofbecomingasawkwardandasfantasticasthey。[21]Theyaccordinglyrunindebt，becomeinvolved，sellonepieceofgroundandthenanotherpiece。Agoodmanyalienatethewhole，exceptingtheirsmallmanorandtheirseigniorialdues，thecensandthelodsetventes，andtheirhuntingandjusticiaryrightsontheterritoryofwhichtheywereformerlyproprietors。[22]Sincetheymustsupportthemselvesontheseprivilegestheymustnecessarilyenforcethem，evenwhentheprivilegeisburdensome，andevenwhenthedebtorisapoorman。Howcouldtheyremitduesingrainandinwinewhentheseconstitutetheirbreadandwinefortheentireyear？Howcouldtheydispensewiththefifthandthefifthofthefifth（duquintetdurequint）whenthisistheonlycointheyobtain？Why，beingneedyshouldtheynotbeexacting？
Accordingly，inrelationtothepeasant，theyaresimplyhiscreditors；andtothisendcomethefeudalrégimetransformedbythemonarchy。AroundthechateauIseesympathiesdeclining，envyraisingitshead，andhatredsontheincrease。Setasideinpublicmatters，freedfromtaxation，theseigniorremainsisolatedandastrangeramonghisvassals；hisextinctauthoritywithhisunimpairedprivilegesformforhimanexistenceapart。Whenheemergesfromit，itistoforciblyaddtothepublicmisery。Fromthissoil，ruinedbythetax—man，hetakesaportionofitsproduct，somuchit，sheavesofwheatandsomanymeasuresofwine。Hispigeonsandhisgameeatupthecrops。Peopleareobligedtogrindinhismill，andtoleavewithhimasixteenthoftheflour。Thesaleofafieldforthesumofsixhundredlivresputsonehundredlivresintohispocket。Abrother’sinheritancereachesabrotheronlyafterhehasgnawedoutofitayear’sincome。Ascoreofotherdues，formerlyofpublicbenefit，nolongerservebuttosupportauselessprivateindividual。Thepeasant，thenastoday，iseagerforgain，determinedandaccustomedtodoandtosuffereverythingtosaveorgainacrown。Heendsbylookingangrilyontheturretinwhicharepreservedthearchives，therent—
roll，thedetestedparchmentsbymeansofwhichaManofanotherspecies，favoredtothedetrimentoftherest，auniversalcreditorandpaidtodonothing，grazesoverallthegroundandfeedsonalltheproducts。Lettheopportunitycometoenkindleallthiscovetousness，andtherent—rollwillburn，andwithittheturret，andwiththeturret，thechateau。
III。AbsenteeSeigniors。
Vastextentoftheirfortunesandrights。—Possessinggreateradvantagestheyowegreaterservices。—Reasonsfortheirabsenteeism。—
Effectofit。——Apathyoftheprovinces。—Conditionoftheirestates。—
Theygivenoalms。—Miseryoftheirtenants。—Exactionsoftheiragents。—Exigenciesoftheirdebts。—Stateoftheirjusticiary。—
Effectsoftheirhuntingrights。—Sentimentsofthepeasantrytowardsthem。
Thespectaclebecomesstillgloomier，onpassingfromtheestatesonwhichtheseigniorsresidetothoseonwhichtheyarenon—
residents。Nobleorennobled，layandecclesiastic，thelatterareprivilegedamongtheprivileged，andformanaristocracyinsideofanaristocracy。Almostallthepowerfulandaccreditedfamiliesbelongtoitwhatevermaybetheiroriginandtheirdate。[23]Throughtheirhabitualorfrequentresidencenearthecourt，throughtheiralliancesormutualvisits，throughtheirhabitsandtheirluxuries，throughtheinfluencewhichtheyexerciseandtheenmitieswhichtheyprovoke，theyformagroupapart，andarethosewhopossessthemostextensiveestates，theleadingsuzerainties，andthemostcompleteandcomprehensivejurisdictions。Ofthecourtnobilityandofthehigherclergy，theynumberperhaps，athousandineachorder，whiletheirsmallnumberonlybringsoutinhigherrelieftheenormityoftheiradvantages。Wehaveseenthattheappanagesoftheprincesofthebloodcompriseaseventhoftheterritory；Neckerestimatestherevenueoftheestatesenjoyedbytheking’stwobrothersattwomillions。[24]ThedomainsoftheDucsdeBouillon，d’Aiguillon，andsomeotherscoverentireleagues，and，inimmensityandcontinuity，remindoneofthose，whichtheDukeofSutherlandandtheDukeofBedfordnowpossessinEngland。Withnothingelsethanhisforestsandhiscanal，theDukeofOrleans，beforemarryinghiswife，asrichashimself，obtainsanincomeofamillion。Acertainseigniory，leClermontois，belongingtothePrincedeCondé，containsfortythousandinhabitants，whichistheextentofaGermanprincipality；"moreoverallthetaxesorsubsidiesoccurringinleClermontoisareimposedforthebenefitofHisSereneHighness，thekingreceivingabsolutelynothing。"[25]Naturallyauthorityandwealthgotogether，and，themoreanestateyields，themoreitsownerresemblesasovereign。ThearchbishopofCambray，DucdeCambray，ComtedeCambrésis，possessesthesuzeraintyoverallthefiefsofaregionwhichnumbersoverseventy—fivethousandinhabitants。Heappointsone—halfofthealdermenofCambrayandthewholeoftheadministratorsofCateau。Henominatestheabbotstotwogreatabbeys，andpresidesovertheprovincialassembliesandthepermanentbureau，whichsucceedsthem。
Inshort，undertheintendant，orathisside，hemaintainsapre—
eminenceandbetterstill，aninfluencesomewhatlikethattodaymaintainedoverhisdomainbygranddukeincorporatedintothenewGermanempire。Nearhim，inHainaut，theabbéofSaint—Armandpossessesseven—eighthsoftheterritoryoftheprovostshipwhilelevyingontheothereighththeseigniorialtaxesofthecorvéesandthedime。Henominatestheprovostofthealdermen，sothat，inthewordsofthegrievances，"hecomposestheentireState，orratherheishimselftheState。"[26]IshouldneverendifIweretospecifyallthesebigprizes。Letusselectonlythoseoftheprelacy，andbutoneparticularside，thatofmoney。Inthe"AlmanachRoyal，"andin"LaFranceEcclésiastique"for1788，wemayreadtheiradmittedrevenues。
Theveritablerevenue，however，isone—halfmoreforthebishoprics，andoubleandtriplefortheabbeys；andwemustagaindoubletheveritablerevenueinordertoestimateitsvalueinthemoneyoftoday。[27]。Theonehundredandthirty—onebishopsandarch—bishopspossessintheaggregate5，600，000livresofepiscopalincomeand1，200，000livresinabbeys，averaging50，000livresperheadasintheprintedrecord，andinreality100，000。Abishopthus，intheeyesofhiscontemporaries，accordingtothestatementofspectatorscognizantoftheactualtruth，was"agrandseignior，withanincomeof100，000
livres。"[28]Someofthemostimportantseesaremagnificentlyendowed。ThatofSensbringsin70，000livres；Verdun，74，000；Tours，82，000；Beauvais，ToulouseandBayeux，90，000；Rouen，100，000；Auch，MetzandAlbi，120，000；Narbonne，160，000；ParisandCambray，200，000
accordingtoofficialreports，andprobablyhalfasmuchmoreinsumsactuallycollected。Othersees，lesslucrative，are，proportionately，stillbetterprovided。Imagineasmallprovincialtown，oftentimesnotevenapettysub—prefectureofourtimes，—Conserans，Mirepoix，Lavaur，Rieux，Lombez，Saint—Papoul，Comminges，Lu？on，Sarlat，Mende，Fréjus，Lescar，Belley，Saint—Malo，Tréguier，Embrun，Saint—Claude，—
and，intheneighborhood，lessthantwohundred，onehundred，andsometimesevenlessthanfiftyparishes，and，asrecompenseforthisslightecclesiasticalsurveillance，aprelatereceivingfrom25，000to70，000livres，accordingtoofficialstatements；from37，000to105，000livresinactualreceipts；andfrom74，000to210，000livresinthemoneyoftoday。Astotheabbeys，Icountthirty—threeofthemproducingtotheabbéfrom25，000to120，000livres，andtwenty—sevenwhichbringfrom20，000to100，000livrestotheabbess。WeighthesesumstakenfromtheAlmanach，andbearinmindthattheymustbedoubled，andmore，toobtaintherealrevenue，andbequadrupled，andmore，toobtaintheactualvalue。Itisevident，that，withsuchrevenues，coupledwiththefeudalrights，police，justiciaryandadministrative，whichaccompanythem，anecclesiasticorlaygrandseignioris，infact，asortofprinceinhisdistrict。Hebearstooclosearesemblancetotheancientsovereigntobeentitledtoliveasanordinaryindividual。Hisprivateadvantagesimposeonhimapubliccharacter。Hisrank，andhisenormousprofits，makesitincumbentonhimtoperformproportionateservices，andthat，evenundertheswayoftheintendant，heowestohisvassals，tohistenants，tohisfeudatoriesthesupportofhismediation，ofhispatronageandofhisgains。
Todothishemustbeinresidence，but，generally，heisanabsentee。Forahundredandfiftyyearsakindofall—powerfulattractiondivertsthegrandeesfromtheprovincesandimpelsthemtowardsthecapital。Themovementisirresistible，foritistheeffectoftwoforces，thegreatestandmostuniversalthatinfluencemankind，one，asocialposition，andtheotherthenationalcharacter。
Atreeisnottobeseveredfromitsrootswithimpunity。Appointedtogovern，anaristocracyfreesitselffromthelandwhenitnolongerrules。Itceasestorulethemomentwhen，throughincreasingandconstantencroachments，almosttheentirejusticiary，theentireadministration，theentirepolice，eachdetailofthelocalorgeneralgovernment，thepowerofinitiating，ofcollaboration，ofcontrolregardingtaxation，elections，roads，publicworksandcharities，passesoverintothehandsoftheintendantorofthesub—delegate，underthesupremedirectionofthecomptroller—generaloroftheking’scouncil。[29]Civilservants，men"oftherobeandthequill，"
colorlesscommoners，performtheadministrativework；thereisnowaytopreventit。Evenwiththeking’sdelegates，aprovincialgovernor，werehehereditary，aprinceoftheblood，liketheCondésinBurgundy，musteffacehimselfbeforetheintendant；heholdsnoeffectiveoffice；hispublicdutiesconsistofshowingoffandprovidingentertainment。Besideshewouldbadlyperformanyothers。
Theadministrativemachine，withitsthousandsofhard，creakinganddirtywheels，asRichelieuandLouisXIV，fashionedit，canworkonlyinthehandsofworkmenwhomaybedismissedatanytimethereforeunscrupulousandprompttogivewaytothejudgmentoftheState。Itisimpossibletoallowoneselftogetmixedupwithroguesofthatdescription。Heaccordinglyabstains，andabandonspublicaffairstothem。Unemployed，bored，whatcouldhenowdoonhisdomain，wherehenolongerreigns，andwheredullnessoverpowershim？Hebetakeshimselftothecity，andespeciallytothecourt。Moreover，onlyherecanhepursueacareer；tobesuccessfulhehastobecomeacourtier。
Itisthewilloftheking，onemustfrequenthisapartmentstoobtainhisfavors；otherwise，onthefirstapplicationforthemtheanswerwillbe，"Whoishe？HeisamanthatIneversee。"Intheking’seyesthereisnoexcuseforabsence，evenshouldthecauseisaconversion，withpenitenceforamotive。InpreferringGodtotheking，hehasdeserted。Theministerswritetotheintendantstoascertainifthegentlemenoftheirprovince"liketostayathome，"andifthey"refusetoappearandperformtheirdutiestotheking。"Imaginethegrandeurofsuchattractionsavailableatthecourt，governments，commands，bishoprics，benefices，court—offices，survivor—ships，pensions，credit，favorsofeverykindanddegreeforselfandfamily。
Allthatacountryof25millionsmencanofferthatisdesirabletoambition，tovanity，tointerest，isfoundherecollectedasinareservoir。Theyrushtoitanddrawfromit。—Andthemorereadilybecauseitisanagreeableplace，arrangedjustastheywouldhaveit，andpurposelytosuitthesocialaptitudesoftheFrenchcharacter。
Thecourtisavastpermanentdrawingroomtowhich"accessiseasyandfreetotheking’ssubjects；"wheretheylivewithhim，"ingentleandvirtuoussocietyinspiteofthealmostinfinitedistanceofrankandpower；"wherethemonarchprideshimselfonbeingtheperfectmasterofahousehold。[30]Infact，nodrawingroomwaseversowellkeptup，norsowellcalculatedtoretainitsguestsbyeverykindofenjoyment，bythebeauty，thedignityandthecharmofitsdecoration，bytheselectionofitscompanyandbytheinterestofthespectacle。
Versaillesistheonlyplacetoshowoneselfoff；tomakeafigure，topushone’sway，tobeamused，toconverseorgossipatthehead—
quartersofnews，ofactivityandofpublicmatters，withtheéliteofthekingdomandthearbitersoffashion，eleganceandtaste。"Sire，"
saidM。deVardestoLouisXIV，"awayfromYourMajestyonenotonlyfeelsmiserablebutridiculous。"Noneremainintheprovincesexceptthepoorruralnobility；tolivethereonemustbebehindtheage，disheartenedorinexile。Theking’sbanishmentofaseigniortohisestatesisthehighestdisgrace；tothehumiliationofthisfallisaddedtheinsupportableweightofboredom。Thefinestchateauonthemostbeautifulsiteisafrightful"desert"；nobodyisseentheresavethegrotesquesofasmalltownorthevillagepeasants。[31]
"Exilealone，"saysArthurYoung，"canforcetheFrenchnobilitytodowhattheEnglishprefertodo，andthatistoliveontheirestatesandembellishthem。"
Saint—Simonandothercourthistorians，onmentioningaceremony，repeatedlystatethat"allFrancewasthere"；infact，everyoneofconsequenceinFranceisthere，andeachrecognizestheotherbythissign。Parisandthecourtbecome，accordingly，thenecessarysojournofallfinepeople。Insuchasituationdeparturebegetsdeparture；
themoreaprovinceisforsakenthemoretheyforsakeit。"Thereisnotinthekingdom，"saystheMarquisdeMirabeau，"asingleestateofanysizeofwhichtheproprietorisnotinParisandwho，consequently，neglectshisbuildingsandchateaux。"[32]Thelaygrandseigniorshavetheirhotelsinthecapital，theirentresolatVersailles，andtheirpleasure—housewithinacircuitoftwentyleagues；iftheyvisittheirestatesatlongintervals，itistohunt。
Thefifteenhundredcommendatoryabbésandpriorsenjoytheirbeneficesasiftheyweresomanyremotefarms。Thetwothousandsevenhundredvicarsandcanonsvisiteachotheranddineout。Withtheexceptionofafewapostoliccharacterstheonehundredandthirty—onebishopsstayathomeaslittleastheycan；nearlyallofthembeingnobles，allofthemmenofsociety，whatcouldtheydooutoftheworld，confinedtoaprovincialtown？Canweimagineagrandseignior，onceagayandgallantabbéandnowabishopwithahundredthousandlivresincome，voluntarilyburyinghimselffortheentireyearatMende，atComminges，inapaltrycloister？Theintervalhasbecometoogreatbetweentherefined，variedandliterarylifeofthegreatcenter，andthemonotonous，inert，practicallifeoftheprovinces。
Henceitisthatthegrandseigniorwhowithdrawsfromtheformercannotenterintothelatter，andheremainsanabsentee，atleastinfeeling。
Acountryinwhichtheheartceasestoimpelthebloodthroughitsveinspresentsasomberaspect。ArthurYoung，whotraveledoverFrancebetween1787and1789，issurprisedtofindatoncesuchavitalcenterandsuchdeadextremities。BetweenParisandVersaillesthedoublefileofvehiclesgoingandcomingextendsuninterruptedlyforfiveleaguesfrommorningtillnight。[33]Thecontrastonotherroadsisverygreat。LeavingParisbytheOrleansroad，saysArthurYoung，"wemetnotonestageordiligencefortenmiles；onlytwomessageriesandveryfewchaises，notatenthofwhatwouldhavebeenmethadwebeenleavingLondonatthesamehour。"OnthehighroadnearNarbonne，"forthirty—sixmiles，"hesays，"Icameacrossbutonecabriolet，halfadozencartsandafewwomenleadingasses。"Elsewhere，nearSt。
Girons，henoticesthatintwohundredandfiftymilesheencounteredinall，"twocabrioletsandthreemiserablethingssimilartoouroldone—horsepostchaise，andnotonegentleman。"Throughoutthiscountrytheinnsareexecrable；itisimpossibletohireawagon，whileinEngland，eveninatownoffifteenhundredortwothousandinhabitants，therearecomfortablehotelsandeverymeansoftransport。ThisprovesthatinFrance"thereisnocirculation。"Itisonlyinverylargetownsthatthereisanycivilizationandcomfort。
AtNantesthereisasuperbtheater"twiceaslargeasDrury—Laneandfivetimesasmagnificent。MonDieu！Icriedtomyself，doallthesewastes，moors，anddeserts，thatIhavepassedfor300milesleadtothisspectacle？……Inasingleleapyoupassfrommiserytoextravagance，……thecountrydeserted，orifagentlemaninit，youfindhiminsomewretchedholetosavethatmoneywhichislavishedwithprofusionintheluxuriesofacapital。""Acoach，"saysM。deMontlosier，"setoutweeklyfromtheprincipaltownsintheprovincesforParisandwasnotalwaysfull，whichtellsusabouttheactivityinbusiness。TherewasasinglejournalcalledtheGazettedeFrance，appearingtwiceaweek，whichrepresentstheactivityofminds。"[34]
SomemagistratesofParisinexileatBourgesin1753and1754givethefollowingpictureofthatplace:
"Atowninwhichnoonecanbefoundwithwhomyoucantalkatyoureaseonanytopicwhatever，reasonablyorsensibly。Thenobles，three—fourthsofthemdyingofhunger，rottingwithprideofbirth，keepingapartfrommenoftherobeandoffinance，andfindingitstrangethatthedaughterofatax—collector，marriedtoacounseloroftheparliamentofParis，shouldpresumetobeintelligentandentertaincompany。Thecitizensareofthegrossestignorance，thesolesupportofthisspeciesoflethargyinwhichthemindsofmostoftheinhabitantsareplunged。Women，bigotedandpretentious，andmuchgiventoplayandtogallantry。"[35]
Inthisimpoverishedandbenumbedsociety，amongtheseMessieursThibaudeau，thecounselor，andHarpin，thetax—collector，amongthesevicomtesdeSotenvilleandCountessesd’Escarbagnas，livestheArchbishop，CardinaldeLarochefoucauld，grandalmonertotheking，providedwithfourgreatabbeys，possessingfivehundredthousandlivresincome，amanoftheworld，generallyanabsentee，andwhenathome，findingamusementintheembellishingofhisgardensandpalace，inshort，thegoldenpheasantofanaviaryinapoultryyardofgeese。[36]Naturallythereisanentireabsenceofpoliticalthought。
"Youcannotimagine，"saysthemanuscript，"apersonmoreindifferenttoallpublicmatters。"Atalaterperiod，intheverymidstofeventsofthegravestcharacter，andwhichmostnearlyconcernthem，thereisthesameapathy。AtChateau—Thierryonthe4thofJuly，1789，[37]
thereisnotacaféinwhichanewpapercanbefound；thereisbutoneatDijon；atMoulins，the7thofAugust，"inthebestcaféinthetown，whereIfoundneartwentytablessetforcompany，butasforanewspaperImightaswellhavedemandedanelephant。"BetweenStrasbourgandBesan？onthereisnotagazette。AtBesan？onthereis"nothingbuttheGazettedeFrance，forwhich，thisperiod，amanofcommonsensewouldnotgiveonesol，……andtheCourierdel’Europeafortnightold；andwell—dressedpeoplearenowtalkingofthenewsoftwoorthreeweekspast，andplainlybytheirdiscourseknownothingofwhatispassing。AtClermont"Idined，orsupped，fivetimesatthetabled’h？tewithfromtwentytothirtymerchants，trademen，officers，etc。，anditisnoteasyformetoexpresstheinsignificance，—theinanityoftheirconversation。Scarcelyanypoliticsarementionedatamomentwheneverybosomoughttobeatwithnonebutpoliticalsensations。Theignoranceorthestupidityofthesepeoplemustbeabsolutelyincredible；notaweekpasseswithouttheircountryaboundingwithevents[38]thatareanalyzedandebatedbythecarpentersandblacksmithsofEngland。"Thecauseofthisinertiaismanifest；interrogatedontheiropinions，allreply:"WeareoftheprovincesandwemustwaittoknowwhatisgoingoninParis。"Neverhavingacted，theydonoknowhowtoact。But，thankstothisinertia，theyletthemselvesbedriven。Theprovincesformanimmensestagnantpond，which，byaterribleinundation，maybeemptiedexclusivelyononeside，andsuddenly；thefaultlieswiththeengineerswhofailedtoprovideitwitheitherdikesoroutlets。
Suchisthelanguoror，rather，theprostration，intowhichlocallifefallswhenthelocalchiefsdepriveitoftheirpresence，actionorsympathy。Ifindonlythreeorfourgrandseigniorstakingapartinit，practicalphilanthropistsfollowingtheexampleofEnglishnoblemen；theDucd’Harcourt，whosettlesthelawsuitsofhispeasants；theDucdeLarochefoucauld—Liancourtwhoestablishesamodelfarmonhisdomain，andaschoolofindustrialpursuitsforthechildrenofpoorsoldiers；andtheComtedeBrienne，whosethirtyvillagesaretodemandlibertyoftheConvention。[39]Therest，forthemostpartliberals，contentthemselveswithdiscussionsonpublicaffairsandonpoliticaleconomy。Infact，thedifferenceinmanners，theseparationofinterests，theremotenessofideasaresogreatthatcontactbetweenthosemostexemptfromhaughtinessandtheirimmediatetenantryisrare，andatlongintervals。ArthurYoung，needingsomeinformationatthehouseoftheDucdeLarochefoucauldhimself，thestewardissentfor。"AtanEnglishnobleman’s，therewouldhavebeenthreeorfourfarmersaskedtomeetme，whowouldhavedinedwiththefamilyamongsttheladiesofthefirstrank。IdonotexaggeratewhenIsaythatIhavehadthisatleastanhundredtimesinthefirsthousesofourislands。Itis，however，athingthatinthepresentstyleofmannersinFrancewouldnotbemetwithfromCalaistoBayonneexcept，bychance，inthehouseofsomegreatlordthathadbeenmuchinEngland，andthennotunlessitwasaskedfor。ThenobilityinFrancehavenomoreideaofpracticingagriculture，andmakingitasubjectofconversation，exceptonthemeretheory，astheywouldspeakofaloomorabowsprit，thanofanyotherobjectthemostremotefromtheirhabitsandpursuits。"Throughtradition，fashionanddeliberation，theyare，andwishonlytobe，peopleofsociety；theirsoleconcernistotalkandtohunt。Neverhavetheleadersofmensounlearnedtheartofleadingmen；theartwhichconsistsofmarchingalongthesamepathwaywiththem，butatthehead，anddirectingtheirlaborbysharinginit。—OurEnglishman，aneye—witnessandcompetent，againwrites:"Thusitiswheneveryoustumbleonagrandseignior，evenonethatwasworthmillions，youaresuretofindhispropertydesert。ThoseoftheDucdeBouillonandofthePrincedeSoubisearetwoofthegreatestpropertiesinFrance；
andallthesignsIhaveyetseenoftheirgreatnessareheaths，moors，deserts，andbrackens。Gototheirresidence，whereveritmaybe，andyouwouldprobablyfindtheminthemidstofaforestverywellpeopledwithdeer，wildboarsandwolves。""Thegreatproprietors，"saysanothercontemporary，[40]"attractedtoandkeptinourcitiesbyluxuriousenjoymentsknownothingoftheirestates，"
save"oftheiragentswhomtheyharassforthesupportofaruinousostentation。Howcanameliorationsbelookedforfromthosewhoevenrefusetokeepthingsupandmakeindispensablerepairs？"Asureproofthattheirabsenceisthecauseoftheevilisfoundinthevisibledifferencebetweenthedomainworkedunderabsentabbé—commendatoryandadomainsuperintendedbymonkslivingonthespot"Theintelligenttravelerrecognizesit"atfirstsightbythestateofcultivation。"Ifhefindsfieldswellenclosedbyditches，carefullyplanted，andcoveredwithrichcrops，thesefields，hesaystohimself；belongtothemonks。Almostalways，alongsideofthesefertileplains，isanareaofgroundbadlytilledandalmostbarren，presentingapainfulcontrast；andyetthesoilisthesame，beingtwoportionsofthesamedomain；heseesthatthelatteristheportionoftheabbé—commendatory。""Theabbatialmanse。"saidLefrancdePompignan，"frequentlylookslikethepropertyofaspendthrift；themonasticmanseislikeapatrimonywhereonnothingisneglectedforitsamelioration，"tosuchanextentthat"thetwo—thirds"whichtheabbéenjoysbringhimlessthanthethirdreservedbyhismonks。—Theruinorimpoverishmentofagricultureis，again，oneoftheeffectsofabsenteeism。Therewas，perhaps，one—thirdofthesoilinFrance，which，desertedasinIreland，wasasbadlytilled，aslittleproductiveasinIrelandinthehandsoftherichabsentees，theEnglishbishops，deansandnobles。
Doingnothingforthesoil，howcouldtheydoanythingformen？Nowandthen，undoubtedly，especiallywithfarmsthatpaynorent，thestewardwritesaletter，allegingthemiseryofthefarmer。Thereisnodoubt，also，that，especiallyforthirtyyearsback，theydesiretobehumane；theydescantamongthemselvesabouttherightsofman；thesightofthepalefaceofahungrypeasantwouldgivethempain。Buttheyneverseehim；doesiteveroccurtothemtofancywhatitislikeundertheawkwardandcomplimentaryphrasesoftheiragent？
Moreover，dotheyknowwhathungeris？Whoamongstthemhashadanyruralexperiences？Andhowcouldtheypicturetothemselvesthemiseryofthisforlornbeing？Theyaretooremotefromhimtothat，tooignorantofhismodeoflife。Theportraittheyconceiveofhimisimaginary；neverwasthereafalserrepresentationofthepeasant；
accordinglytheawakeningistobeterrible。Theyviewhimastheamiableswain，gentle，humbleandgrateful，simple—heartedandright—
minded，easilyled，beingconceivedaccordingtoRousseauandtheidyllsperformedatthisveryepochinallprivatedrawingrooms。[41]
Lackingaknowledgehimtheyoverlookhim；theyreadthesteward’sletterandimmediatelythewhirlofhighlifeagainseizesthemand，afterasighbestowedonthedistressofthepoor，theymakeuptheirmindsthattheirincomefortheyearwillbeshort。Adispositionofthiskindisnotfavorabletocharity。Accordingly，complaintsarise，notagainsttheresidentsbutagainsttheabsentees。[42]"ThepossessionsoftheChurch，saysaletter，serveonlytonourishthepassionsoftheirholders。""Accordingtothecanons，saysanothermemorandum，everybeneficiarymustgiveaquarterofhisincometothepoor；neverthelessinourparishthereisarevenueofmorethantwelvethousandlivres，andnoneofitisgiventothepoorunlessitissomesmallmatteratthehandsofthecurate。""TheabbédeConchesgetsone—halfofthetithesandcontributesnothingtothereliefoftheparish。"Elsewhere，"thechapterofEcouis，whichownsthebeneficeofthetithesisofnoadvantagetothepoor，andonlyseekstoaugmentitsincome。"Nearby，theabbéofCroix—Leufroy，"aheavytithe—owner，andtheabbédeBernay，whogetsfifty—seventhousandlivresfromhisbenefice，andwhoisanon—resident，keepallandscarcelygiveenoughtotheirofficiatingcuratestokeepthemalive。"
"Ihaveinmyparish，saysacurateofBerry，[43]sixsimplebeneficesofwhichthetitulariesarealwaysabsent。Theyenjoytogetheranincomeofninethousandlivres；Isenttheminwritingthemosturgententreatiesduringthecalamityofthepastyear；Ireceivedfromonethemtwolouisonly，andmostofthemdidnotevenanswerme。"
Strongeristhereasonforaconvictionthatinordinarytimestheywillmakenoremissionoftheirdues。Moreover，thesedues，thecensives，thelodsetventes，tithes，andthelike，areinthehandsofasteward，andheisagoodstewardwhoreturnsalargeamountofmoney。Hehasnorighttobegenerousathismaster’sexpense，andheistemptedtoturnthesubjectsofhismastertohisownprofit。Invainmightthesoftseignorialhandbedisposedtobeeasyorpaternal；thehardhandoftheproxybearsdownonthepeasantswithallitsweight，andthecautionofachiefgivesplacetotheexactionsofaclerk。—Howisitthenwhen，insteadofaclerkonthedomain，afermierisfound，anadjudicatorwho，foranannualsum，purchasesofseigniorthemanagementandproductofhisdues？InelectionofMayenne，[44]andcertainlyalsoinmanyothers，theprincipaldomainsarerentedinthisway。Moreoverthereareanumberofdues，likethetolls，themarket—placetax，thatontheflockapart，themonopolyoftheovenandofthemillwhichcanscarcelybemanagedotherwise；theseigniormustnecessarilyemployanadjudicatorwhospareshimthedisputesandtroubleofcollecting。[45]Thishappensoftenandthedemandsandthegreedofthecontractor，whoisdeterminedtogainor，atleast，nottolose，fallsonthepeasantry:
"Heisaravenouswolf，"saysRenauldon，"letlooseontheestate。
Hedrawsuponittothelastsou，hecrushesthesubjects，reducesthemtobeggary，forcesthecultivatorstodesert。Theowner，thusrenderedodious，findshimselfobligedtotoleratehisexactionstoabletoprofitbythem。"
Imagine，ifyoucan，theevilwhichacountryusurerexercises，armedagainstthemwithsuchburdensomerights；itisthefeudalseignioryinthehandsofHarpagon，orratherofoldGrandet。When，indeed，ataxbecomesinsupportablewesee，bythelocalcomplaints，thatitisnearlyalwaysafermierwhoenforcesit。[46]Itisoneofthese，actingforabodyofcanons，whoclaimsJeanneMermet’spaternalinheritanceonthepretensethatshehadpassedherweddingnightatherhusband’shouse。OnecanbarelyfindsimilarexactionsintheIrelandof1830，onthoseestateswhere，thefarmer—generalrentingtosub—farmersandthelattertoothersstillbelowthem。Thepoortenantatthefootoftheladderhimselfborethefullweightofit，somuchthemorecrushedbecausehiscreditor，crushedhimselfmeasuredtherequirementsheexactedbythosehehadtosubmitto。