Theyscarcelyshowthemselvesinthestreetswithoutbeinghootedat……Asournationandourcenturyarequiteotherwiseenlightened（thaninthetimeofLuther），itwillbecarriedfarenough；theywillexpelthepriests，abolishthepriesthoodandgetridofallrevelationandallmystery……Onedarenotspeakinbehalfoftheclergyinsocialcircles；oneisscoffedatandregardedasafamiliaroftheinquisition。Thepriestsremarkthat，thisyear，thereisadiminutionofmorethanone—thirdinthenumberofcommunicants。TheCollegeoftheJesuitsisbeingdeserted；onehundredandtwentyboardershavebeenwithdrawnfromthesesogreatlydefamedmonks。Ithasbeenobservedalsothat，duringthecarnivalinParis，thenumberofmaskscounterfeitingecclesiasticaldress，bishops，abbés，monksandnuns，wasneversogreat。"—Sodeepisthisantipathy，themostmediocrebooksbecometheragesolongastheyareanti—Christianandcondemnedassuch。In1748aworkbyToussaintcalled"LesMoeurs，"infavorofnaturalreligion，suddenlybecomessofamous，"thatthereisnooneamongacertainclassofpeople，"writesBarbier，"manorwoman，pretendingtobeintellectual，whoisnoteagertoreadit。"Peopleaccosteachotherontheirpromenades，Haveyouread"LesMoeurs"？—Tenyearslatertheyarebeyonddeism。"Materialism，"Barbierfurthersaid，"isthegreatgrievance……""Almostallpeopleoferuditionandtaste，writesd’Argenson，"inveighagainstourholyreligion……
Itisattackedonallsides，andwhatanimatesunbelieversstillmoreistheeffortsmadebythedevouttocompelbelief。Theypublishbookswhicharebutlittleread；debatesnolongertakeplace，everythingbeinglaughedat，whilepeoplepersistinmaterialism。"
HoraceWalpole，whoreturnstoFrancein1765，[18]andwhosegoodsenseanticipatesthedanger，isastonishedatsuchimprudence:"I
dinedtodaywithadozenscholarsandscientists，andalthoughalltheservantswerearoundusandlistening，theconversationwasmuchmoreunrestrained，evenontheOldTestament，thanIwouldallowatmyowntableinEnglandevenifasinglefootmanwaspresent。"Peopledogmatizeeverywhere。"Jokingisasmuchoutoffashionasjumpingjacksandtumblers。Ourgoodfolkshavenotimetolaugh！ThereisGodandthekingtobehauleddownfirst；andmenandwomen，oneandall，aredevoutlyemployedinthedemolition。Theythinkmequiteprofaneforhavinganybeliefleft……Doyouknowwhothephilosophersare，orwhatthetermmeanshere？Inthefirstplaceitcomprehendsalmosteverybody；andinthenext，meansmen，who，avowingwaragainstpopery，takeaim，manyofthem，atasubversionofallreligion……Thesesavants，—Ibegtheirpardons，thesephilosophers—areinsupportable，superficial，overbearingandfanatic:theypreachincessantly，andtheiravoweddoctrineisatheism；youwouldnotbelievehowopenly。Voltairehimselfdoesnotsatisfythem。Oneoftheirladydevoteessaidofhim，’Heisabigot，adeist！’"
Thisisverystrong，andyetwehavenotcometotheendofit；
for，thusfar，impietyislessaconvictionthanthefashion。
Walpole，acarefulobserver，isnotdeludedbyit。"BywhatIhavesaidoftheirreligiousorratherirreligiousopinions，youmustnotconcludetheirpeopleofqualityatheists—atleastnotthemen。
Happilyforthem，poorsouls！theyarenotcapableofgoingsofarintothinking。Theyassenttoagreatdealbecauseitisthefashion，andbecausetheydon’tknowhowtocontradict。"Nowthat"dandiesareoutmoded"andeverybodyis"aphilosopher，""theyarephilosophers。"Itisessentialtobelikealltherestoftheworld。
Butthatwhichtheybestappreciateinthenewmaterialismisthepungencyofparadoxandthefreedomgiventopleasure。Theyareliketheboysofgoodfamilies，fondofplayingtricksontheirecclesiasticalpreceptor。Theytakeoutoflearnedtheoriesjustwhatiswantedtomakeadunce—cap，andderivethemoreamusementfromthefunifitisseasonedwithimpiety。AseigniorofthecourthavingseenDoyen’spictureof"St。Genevieveandtheplague—
stricken，"sendstoapainterthefollowingdaytocometohimathismistress’sdomicile:"Iwouldlike，"hesaystohim，"tohaveMadamepaintedinaswingputinmotionbyabishop；youmayplacemeinsuchawaythatImayseetheanklesofthathandsomewoman，andevenmore，ifyouwanttoenlivenyourpicture。"[19]Thelicentioussong"Marotte""spreadslikewildfire；""afortnightafteritspublication，"saysCollé，"Imetnoonewithoutacopy；anditisthevaudeville，orrather，theclericalassembly，whichgivesititspopularity。"Themoreirreligiousalicentiousbookisthemoreitisprized；whenitcannotbeprinteditiscopiedinmanuscript。Collé
counts"perhapstwothousandmanuscriptcopiesof’LaPucelle’byVoltaire，scatteredaboutParisinonemonth。"Themagistratesthemselvesburnitonlyforform’ssake。"ItmustnotbesupposedthatthehangmanisallowedtoburnthebookswhosetitlesfigureinthedecreeoftheCourt。Messieurswouldbeloathtodeprivetheirlibrariesofthecopyofthoseworkswhichfalltothembyright，andmaketheregistrarsupplyitsplacewithafewpoorrecordsofchicaneryofwhichthereisnoscantyprovision。"[20]
But，asthecenturyadvances，unbelief，lessnoisy，becomesmoresolid。Itinvigoratesitselfatthefountain—head；thewomenthemselvesbegintobeinfatuatedwiththesciences。In1782，[21]
oneofMme。deGenlis’scharacterswrites，FiveyearsagoIleftthemthinkingonlyoftheirattireandthepreparationoftheirsuppers；Inowfindthemallscientificandwitty。"Wefindinthestudyofafashionablewoman，alongsideofasmallaltardedicatedtoBenevolenceorFriendship，adictionaryofnaturalhistoryandtreatisesonphysicsandchemistry。Awomannolongerhasherselfpaintedasagoddessonacloudbutinalaboratory，seatedamidstsquaresandtelescopes[22]。TheMarquisedeNesle，theComtessedeBrancas，theComtessedePons，theMarquisedePolignac，arewithRouellewhenheundertakestomeltandvolatilizethediamond。Associationsoftwentyortwenty—fivepersonsareformedinthedrawing—roomstoattendlectureseitheronphysics，appliedchemistry，mineralogyoronbotany。FashionablewomenatthepublicmeetingsoftheAcademyofInscriptionsapplauddissertationsonthebullApis，andreportsontheEgyptian，PhoenicianandGreeklanguages。Finally，in1786，theysucceedinopeningthedoorsoftheCollegedeFrance。Nothingdetersthem。
Manyofthemusethelancetandeventhescalpel；theMarquisedeVoyerattendsatdissections，andtheyoungComtessedeCoignydissectswithherownhands。Thecurrentinfidelityfindsfreshsupportonthisfoundation，whichisthatoftheprevailingphilosophy。Towardstheendofthecentury[23]"weseeyoungpersonswhohavebeeninsocietysixorsevenyearsopenlyplumingthemselvesontheirirreligion，thinkingthatimpietymakesupforwit，andthattobeanatheististobeaphilosopher。"Thereare，undoubtedly，agoodmanydeists，especiallyafterRousseauappeared，butIquestionwhether，outofahundredpersons，therewereinParisatthistimetenChristianmenorwomen。"Thefashionableworldfortenyearspast，"saysMercier[24]in1783，"hasnotattendedmass。PeoplegoonlyonSundayssoasnottoscandalizetheirlackeys，whilethelackeyswellknowthatitisontheiraccount。"TheDucdeCoigny，[25]
onhisestatenearAmiens，refusestobeprayedforandthreatenshiscurateifhetakesthatlibertytohavehimcastoutofhispulpit；
hissonbecomesillandheprohibitstheadministeringofthesacraments；thesondiesandheopposestheusualobsequies，buryingthebodyinhisgarden；becomingillhimselfhecloseshisdooragainstthebishopofAmiens，whocomestoseehimtwelvetimes，anddiesashehadlived。Ascandalofthiskindisdoubtlessnotoriousand，therefore，rare。Almosteverybody，maleandfemale，"allywithfreedomofideasaproperobservanceofforms。"[26]Whenamaidappearsandsaystohermistress，"MadamelaDuchesse，theHost（lebonDieu）isoutside，willyouallowhimtoenter？Hedesirestohavethehonorofadministeringtoyou，"appearancesarekeptup。Thetroublesomeindividualisadmittedandheispolitelyreceived。Iftheyslipawayfromhimitisunderadecentpretext；butifheishumoreditisonlyoutofasenseofdecorum。"AtSurawhenamandies，heholdsacow’stailinhishand。"SocietywasnevermoredetachedfromChristianity。Initseyesapositivereligionisonlyapopularsuperstition，goodenoughforchildrenandinnocentsbutnotfor"sensiblepeople"andthegreat。ItisyourdutytoraiseyourhattotheHostasitpasses，butyourdutyisonlytoraiseyourhat。
Thelastandgravestsignofall！Ifthecurateswhoworkandwhoareofthepeopleholdthepeople’sideas，theprelateswhotalk，andwhoareofsocietyholdtheopinionsofsociety。AndIdonotalludemerelytotheabbésofthedrawing—room，thedomesticcourtiers，bearersofnews，andwritersoflightverse，thosewhofawninboudoirs，andwho，whenincompany，answerlikeanecho，andwho，betweenonedrawingroomandanother，serveasmegaphone；anecho，amegaphoneonlyrepeatsthephrase，whetherskepticalornot，withwhichitischarged。Irefertothedignitaries，and，onthispoint，thewitnessesallconcur。InthemonthofAugust，1767，theAbbé
Bassinet，grandvicarofCahors，onpronouncingthepanegyricofSt。
LouisintheLouvrechapel，[27]"suppressedthesignofthecross，makingnoquotationfromScriptureandneverutteringawordaboutChristandtheSaints。HeconsideredLouisIXmerelyonthesideofhispolitical，moralandmilitaryvirtues。HeanimadvertedontheCrusades，settingforththeirabsurdity，crueltyandeveninjustice。
HestruckopenlyandwithoutcautionattheseeofRome。"Others"avoidthenameofChristinthepulpitandmerelyalludetohimasaChristianlegislator。"[28]Inthecodewhichtheprevailingopinionsandsocialdecencyimposeontheclergyadelicateobserver[29]thusspecifiesdistinctionsinrankwiththeirpropershadesofbehavior:
"Aplainpriest，acurate，musthavealittlefaith，otherwisehewouldbefoundahypocrite；atthesametime，hemustnotbetoowellsatisfied，forhewouldbefoundintolerant。Onthecontrary，thegrandvicarmaysmileatanexpressionagainstreligion，thebishopmaylaughoutright，andthecardinalmayaddsomethingofhisowntoit。""Alittlewhileago，"achroniclenarrates，"someoneputthisquestiontooneofthemostrespectablecuratesinParis:Doyouthinkthatthebishopswhoinsistsostrenuouslyonreligionhavemuchofitthemselves？Theworthypastorreplied，afteramoment’shesitation:
Theremaybefourorfiveamongthemwhostillbelieve。"Toonewhoisfamiliarwiththeirbirth，theirsocialrelations，theirhabitsandtheirtastes，thisdoesnotappearatallimprobable。"DomCollignon，arepresentativeoftheabbeyofMettach，seigniorhigh—
justiciaryandcurateofValmunster，"afine—lookingman，finetalker，andanagreeablehousekeeper，avoidsscandalbyhavinghistwomistressesathistableonlywithaselectfew；heisinotherrespectsaslittledevoutaspossible，andmuchlesssothantheSavoyardvicar，"findingevilonlyininjusticeandinalackofcharity，"andconsideringreligionmerelyasapoliticalinstitutionandformoralends。Imightcitemanyothers，likeM。deGrimaldi，theyoungandgallantbishopofLeMans，whoselectsyoungandgallantcomradesofhisownstationforhisgrandvicars，andwhohasarendezvousforprettywomenathiscountryseatatCoulans[30]。
Judgeoftheirfaithbytheirhabits。Inothercaseswehavenodifficultyindetermining。ScepticismisnotoriouswiththeCardinaldeRohan，withM。deBrienne，archbishopofSens，withM。deTalleyrand，bishopofAutun，andwiththeAbbéMaury，defenderoftheclergy。
Rivarol，[31]himselfaskeptic，declaresthatattheapproachoftheRevolution，"theenlightenmentoftheclergyequaledthatofthephilosophers。""Whowouldbelieveit，butbodywiththefewestprejudices，"saysMercier，[32]"istheclergy。"AndtheArchbishopofNarbonne，explainingtheresistanceoftheupperclassoftheclergyinI791[33]attributesit，nottofaithbuttoapointofhonor。"Weconductedourselvesatthattimeliketruegentlemen，for，withmostofus，itcouldnotbesaidthatitwasthroughreligiousfeeling。"
V。POLITICALOPPOSITION。
Progressofpoliticalopposition。—Itsorigin。—Theeconomistsandtheparliamentarians。—Theypreparethewayforthephilosophers。—Politicalfault—findinginthedrawing—rooms。—
Femaleliberalism。
Thedistancebetweenthealtarandthethroneisashortone，andyetitrequiresthirtyyearsforopiniontoovercomeit。Nopoliticalorsocialattacksareyetmadeduringthefirsthalfofthecentury。Theironyofthe"LettresPersanes"isascautiousasitisdelicate，andthe"EspritdesLois"isconservative。AstotheAbbé
deSaint—Pierrehisreveriesprovokeasmile，andwhenheundertakestocensureLouisXIVtheAcademystrikeshimoffitslist。Atlast，theeconomistsononesideandtheparliamentariansontheother，givethesignal。—Voltairesays[34]that"about1750thenation，satiatedwithverse，tragedies，comedies，novels，operas，romantichistories，andstillmoreromanticmoralizings，andwithdisputesaboutgraceandconvulsions，begantodiscussthequestionofcorn。"
Whatmakesbreaddear？Whyisthelaborersomiserable？Whatconstitutesthematerialandlimitsoftaxation？Oughtnotalllandtopaytaxes，andshouldonepiecepaymorethanitsnetproduct？Thesearethequestionsthatfindtheirwayintodrawing—roomsundertheking’sauspices，bymeansofQuesnay，hisphysician，"histhinker，"
thefounderofasystemwhichaggrandizesthesovereigntorelievethepeople，andwhichmultipliesthenumberoftax—payerstolightentheburdenoftaxation。—Atthesametime，throughtheoppositedoor，otherquestionsenter，notlessnovel。"IsFrance[35]amildandrepresentativemonarchyoragovernmentoftheTurkishstamp？Arewesubjecttothewillofanabsolutemaster，orarewegovernedbyalimitedandregulatedpower？……Theexiledparliamentsarestudyingpublicrightsattheirsourcesandconferringtogetherontheseasintheacademies。Throughtheirresearches，theopinionisgaininggroundinthepublicmindthatthenationisabovetheking，astheuniversalchurchisabovethepope。"—Thechangeisstrikingandalmostimmediate。"Fiftyyearsago，"saysd’Argenson，again，"thepublicshowednocuriosityconcerningmattersoftheState。TodayeverybodyreadshisGazettedeParis，evenintheprovinces。Peoplereasonatrandomonpoliticalsubjects，butneverthelesstheyoccupythemselveswiththem。"—Conversationhavingonceprovideditselfwiththisdietholdsfasttoit，thedrawing—rooms，accordingly，openingtheirdoorstopoliticalphilosophy，and，consequently，totheSocialContract，totheEncyclopedia，tothepreachingsofRousseau，Mably，d’Holbach，Raynal，andDiderot。In1759，d’Argenson，whobecomesexcited，alreadythinksthelasthourhascome。"Wefeelthebreathofaphilosophicalanti—monarchical，freegovernmentwind；theideaiscurrent，andpossiblythisformofgovernment，alreadyinsomeminds，istobecarriedoutthefirstfavorableopportunity。Perhapstherevolutionmighttakeplacewithlessoppositionthanonesupposes，occurringbyacclamation。[36]
Thetimeisnotyetcome，buttheseediscomingup。Bachaumont，in1762，noticesadelugeofpamphlets，tractsandpoliticaldiscussions，"arageforarguingonfinancialandgovernmentmatters。"
In1765，Walpolestatesthattheatheists，whothenmonopolizeconversation，inveighagainstkingsaswellasagainstpriests。A
formidableword，thatofcitizen，importedbyRousseau，hasenteredintocommonspeech，andthematterissettledonthewomenadoptingitastheywouldacockade。"Asafriendandacitoyennecouldanynewsbemoreagreeabletomethanthatofpeaceandthehealthofmydearlittleone？"[37]Anotherword，notlesssignificant，thatofenergy，formerlyridiculous，becomesfashionable，andisusedoneveryoccasion[38]。Alongwithlanguagethereisachangeofsentiment，ladiesofhighrankpassingovertotheopposition。In1771，saysthescofferBezenval，aftertheexileoftheParliament"socialmeetingsforpleasureorotherpurposeshadbecomepettyStates—
Generalsinwhichthewomen，transformedintolegislators，establishedthepremisesandconfidentlypropoundedmaximsofpublicright。"TheComtessed’Egmont，acorrespondentoftheKingofSweden，sendshimapaperonthefundamentallawofFrance，favoringtheParliament，thelastdefenderofnationalliberty，againsttheencroachmentsofChancellorMaupeou。"TheChancellor，"shesays，[39]"withinthelastsixmonthshasbroughtpeopletoknowthehistoryofFrancewhowouldhavediedwithoutanyknowledgeofit……Ihavenodoubt，sire，"sheadds，"thatyouneverwillabusethepoweranenrapturedpeoplehaveentrustedtoyouwithoutlimitation……Mayyourreignprovetheepochofthere—establishmentofafreeandindependentgovernment，butneverthesourceofabsoluteauthority。"
Numbersofwomenofthefirstrank，MesdamesdelaMarck，deBoufflers，deBrienne，deMesmes，deLuxembourg，deCroy，thinkandwriteinthesamestyle。"Absolutepower，"saysoneofthese，"isamortalmaladywhich，insensiblycorruptingmoralqualities，endsinthedestructionofstates……Theactionsofsovereignsaresubjecttothecensureoftheirsubjectsastothatoftheuniverse……Franceisundoneifthepresentadministrationlasts。"[40]
—When，underLouisXVI，anewadministrationproposesandwithdrawsfeeblemeasuresofreform。theircriticismshowsthesamefirmness:
"Childishness，weakness，constantinconsistency，"writesanother，[41]
"incessantchange；andalwaysworseoffthanwewerebefore。
MonsieurandM。leComted’Artoishavejustmadeajourneythroughtheprovinces，butonlyaspeopleofthatkindtravel，withafrightfulexpenditureanddevastationalongthewholeroad，comingbackextraordinarilyfat；Monsieurisasbigasahogshead；astoM。leComted’Artoisheisbringingaboutorderbythelifeheleads。"—
Aninspirationofhumanityanimatesthesefemininebreastsalongwiththatofliberty。Theyinterestthemselvesinthepoor，inchildren，inthepeople；Madamed’EgmontrecommendsGustavusIIItoplantDalecarliawithpotatoes。OntheappearanceoftheengravingpublishedforthebenefitofCalas[42]"allFranceandevenallEurope，hastenstosubscribeforit，theEmpressofRussiagiving5，000livres[43]。"Agriculture，economy，reform，philosophy，"writesWalpole，"arebonton，evenatthecourt。"—PresidentDupatyhavingdrawnupamemoranduminbehalfofthreeinnocentpersons，sentenced"tobebrokenonthewheel，everybodyinsocietyistalkingaboutit；""idleconversationnolongerprevailsinsociety，"saysacorrespondentofGustavusIII[44]"sinceitisthatwhichformspublicopinion。Wordshavebecomeactions。Everysensitiveheartpraiseswithjoyapublicationinspiredbyhumanityandwhichappearsfulloftalentbecauseitisfulloffeeling。"WhenLatudeisreleasedfromtheprisonofBicêtreMme。deLuxembourg，Mme。deBoufflers，andMme。deSta？ldinewiththegrocer—womanwho"forthreeyearsandahalfmovedheavenandearth"tosettheprisonerfree。Itisowingtothewomen，totheirsensibilityandzeal，toaconspiracyoftheirsympathies，thatM。deLallysucceedsintherehabilitationofhisfather。Whentheytakeafancytoapersontheybecomeinfatuatedwithhim；MadamedeLauzun，verytimid，goessofarastopubliclyinsultamanwhospeaksillofM。Necker。—Itmustbeborneinmindthat，inthiscentury，thewomenwerequeens，settingthefashion，givingthetone，leadinginconversationandnaturallyshapingideasandopinions[45]。Whentheytaketheleadonthepoliticalfieldwemaybesurethatthemenwillfollowthem:eachonecarriesherdrawingroomcirclewithher。
VI。WELL—MEANINGGOVERNMENT。
Infinite，vagueaspirations。—Generosityofsentimentsandofconduct。—Themildnessandgoodintentionsofthegovernment。—
Itsblindnessandoptimism。
Anaristocracyimbuedwithhumanitarianandradicalmaxims，courtiershostiletothecourt，privilegedpersonsaidinginunderminingprivileges，presentstousastrangespectacleinthetestimonyofthetime。Acontemporarystatesthatitisanacceptedprinciple"tochangeandupseteverything。"[46]Highandlow，inassemblages，inpublicplaces，onlyreformersandopposingpartiesareencounteredamongtheprivilegedclasses。
"In1787，almosteveryprominentmanofthepeerageintheParliamentdeclaredhimselfinfavorofresistance……I
haveseenatthedinnerswethenattendedalmosteveryideaputforward，which，soonafterwards，producedsuchstartlingeffects。"[47]
Alreadyin1774，M。deVaublanc，onhiswaytoMetz，findsadiligencecontaininganecclesiasticandacount，acolonelinthehussars，talkingpoliticaleconomyconstantly[48]。"Itwasthefashionoftheday。Everybodywasaneconomist。Peopleconversedtogetheronlyaboutphilosophy，politicaleconomyandespeciallyhumanity，andthemeansforrelievingthepeople，（lebonpeuple），whichtwowordswereineverybody’smouth。"Tothismustbeaddedequality；Thomas，inaeulogyofMarshalSaxesays，"Icannotconcealit，hewasofroyalblood，"andthisphrasewasadmired。Afewoftheheadsofoldparliamentaryorseigniorialfamiliesmaintaintheoldpatricianandmonarchicalstandard，thenewgenerationsuccumbingtonovelty。"Forourselves，"saysoneofthembelongingtotheyouthfulclassofthenobility，[49]"withnoregretforthepastoranxietyforthefuture，wemarchedgailyalongoveracarpetofflowersconcealinganabyss。
Mockingcensorsofantiquatedways，ofthefeudalprideofourfathersandoftheirsoberetiquette，everythingantiqueseemedtousannoyingandridiculous。Thegravityofolddoctrinesoppressedus。ThecheerfulphilosophyofVoltaireamusedandtookpossessionofus。
Withoutfathomingthatofgraverwritersweadmireditforitsstampoffearlessnessandresistancetoarbitrarypower……
Liberty，what—everitslanguage，delighteduswithitsspirit，andequalityonaccountofitsconvenience。Itisapleasantthingtodescendsolongasonethinksonecanascendwhenonepleases；wewereatonceenjoying，withoutforethought，theadvantagesofthepatriciateandthesweetsofacommonerphilosophy。Thus，althoughourprivilegeswereatstake，andtheremnantsofourformersupremacywereunderminedunderourfeet，thislittlewarfaregratifiedus。
Inexperiencedintheattack，wesimplyadmiredthespectacle。
Combatswiththepenandwithwordsdidnotappeartouscapableofdamagingourexistingsuperiority，whichseveralcenturiesofpossessionhadmadeusregardasimpregnable。Theformsoftheedificeremainingintact，wecouldnotseehowitcouldbeminedfromwithin。Welaughedattheseriousalarmoftheoldcourtandoftheclergywhichthunderedagainstthespiritofinnovation。Weapplaudedrepublicanscenesinthetheater，[50]philosophicdiscoursesinourAcademies，theboldpublicationsoftheliteraryclass。"—Ifinequalitystillsubsistsinthedistributionofofficesandofplaces，"equalitybeginstoreigninsociety。Onmanyoccasionsliterarytitlesobtainprecedenceovertitlesofnobility。Courtiersandservantsofthepassingfashion，paidtheircourttoMarmontel，d’AlembertandRaynal。Wefrequentlysawincompanyliterarymenofthesecondandthirdrankgreetedandreceivingattentionsnotextendedtothenoblesoftheprovinces……Institutionsremainedmonarchical，butmannersandcustomsbecamerepublican。A
wordofpraisefromd’AlembertorDiderotwasmoreesteemedthanthemostmarkedfavorfromaprince……Itwasimpossibletopassaneveningwithd’Alembert，orattheH？teldeLarochefoucauldamongthefriendsofTurgot，toattendabreakfastattheAbbéRaynal’s，tobeadmittedintothesocietyandfamilyofM。deMalesherbes，andlastly，toapproachamostamiablequeenandamostuprightking，withoutbelievingourselvesabouttoenteruponakindofgoldeneraofwhichprecedingcenturiesaffordednoidea……Wewerebewilderedbytheprismatichuesoffreshideasanddoctrines，radiantwithhopes，ardentlyaglowforeverysortofreputation，enthusiasticforalltalentsandbeguiledbyeveryseductivedreamofaphilosophythatwasabouttosecurethehappinessofthehumanspecies。Farfromforeseeingmisfortune，excess，crime，theoverthrowofthronesandofprinciples，thefuturedisclosedtousonlythebenefitswhichhumanitywastoderivefromthesovereigntyofReason。Freedomofthepressandcirculationwasgiventoeveryreformativewriting，toeveryprojectofinnovation，tothemostliberalideasandtotheboldestofsystems。Everybodythoughthimselfontheroadtoperfectionwithoutbeingunderanyembarrassmentorfearinganykindofobstacle。WewereproudofbeingFrenchmenand，yetagain，Frenchmenoftheeighteenthcentury……Neverwasamoreterribleawakeningprecededbyasweeterslumberorbymoreseductivedreams。"
Theydonotcontentthemselveswithdreams，withpuredesires，withpassiveaspirations。Theyareactive，andtrulygenerous；aworthycausesufficestosecuretheirdevotion。OnthenewsoftheAmericanrebellion，theMarquisdeLafayette，leavinghisyoungwifepregnant，escapes，bravestheordersofthecourt，purchasesafrigate，crossestheoceanandfightsbythesideofWashington。"Themomentthequarrelwasmadeknowntome，"hesays，"myheartwasenlistedinit，andmyonlythoughtwastorejoinmyregiment。"Numbersofgentlemenfollowinhisfootsteps。Theyundoubtedlylovedanger；"thechanceofbeingshotistooprecioustobeneglected。"[51]Butthemainthingistoemancipatetheoppressed；"weshowedourselvesphilosophersbybecomingpaladins，"[52]thechivalricsentimentenlistingintheserviceofliberty。Otherservicesbesidesthese，moresedentaryandlessbrilliant，findnofewerzealots。Thechiefpersonagesoftheprovincesintheprovincialassemblies，[53]thebishops，archbishops，abbés，dukes，counts，andmarquises，withthewealthiestandbestinformedofthenotablesintheThird—Estate，inallaboutathousandpersons，inshortthesocialelect，theentireupperclassconvokedbytheking，organizethebudget，defendthetax—
payeragainstthefiscalauthorities，arrangetheland—registry，equalizethetaille，provideasubstituteforthecorvée，providepublicroads，multiplycharitableasylums，educateagriculturists，proposing，encouraginganddirectingeveryspeciesofreformatorymovement。Ihavereadthroughthetwentyvolumesoftheirprocès—
verbaux:nobettercitizens，nomoreconscientiousmen，nomoredevotedadministratorscanbefound，nonegratuitouslytakingsomuchtroubleonthemselveswithnoobjectbutthepublicwelfare。Neverwasanaristocracysodeservingofpoweratthemomentoflosingit；
theprivilegedclass，arousedfromtheirindolence，wereagainbecomingpublicmen，and，restoredtotheirfunctions，werereturningtotheirduties。In1778，inthefirstassemblyofBerry，theAbbé
deSeguiran，thereporter，hasthecouragetostatethat"thedistributionofthetaxesshouldbeafraternalpartitionofpublicobligations。"[54]In1780theabbés，priorsandchaptersofthesameprovincecontribute60，000livresoftheirfunds，andafewgentlemen，inlessthantwenty—fourhours，contribute17，000livres。In1787，intheassemblyofAlen？onthenobilityandtheclergytaxthemselves30，000livrestorelievetheindigentineachparishsubjecttotaxation[55]。inthemonthofApril，1787，theking，inanassemblyofthenotables，speaksof"theeagernesswithwhicharchbishopsandbishopscomeforwardclaimingnoexemptionintheircontributionstothepublicrevenue。"InthemonthofMarch，1789，ontheopeningofthebailiwickassemblies，theentireclergy，nearlyallthenobility，inshort，thewholebodyoftheprivilegedclassvoluntarilyrenouncetheirprivilegesinrelationtotaxation。Thesacrificeisvotedunanimously；theythemselvesofferittotheThird—Estate，anditisworthwhiletoseetheirgenerousandsympathetictoneinthemanuscriptprocès—verbaux。
"ThenobilityofthebailiwickofTours，"saystheMarquisdeLusignan，[56]"consideringthattheyaremenandcitizensbeforebeingnobles，canmakeamendsinnowaymoreinconformitywiththespiritofjusticeandpatriotismthatanimatesthebody，forthelongsilencetowhichithasbeencondemnedbytheabuseofministerialpower，thanindeclaringtotheirfellow—citizensthat，infuture，theywillclaimnoneofthepecuniaryadvantagessecuredtothembycustom，andthattheyunanimouslyandsolemnlybindthemselvestobearequally，eachinproportiontohisfortune，alltaxesandgeneralcontributionswhichthenationshallprescribe。"
"Irepeat，"saystheComtedeBuzan？oisatthemeetingoftheThird—EstateofBerry，"thatweareallbrothers，andthatweareanxioustoshareyourburdens……Wedesiretohavebutonesinglevoicegouptotheassemblyandthusmanifesttheunionandharmonywhichshouldprevailthere。Iamdirectedtomaketheproposaltoyoutounitewithyouinonememorandum。"
"Thesequalitiesareessentialinadeputy，"saystheMarquisdeBarbanconspeakingforthenoblesofChateauroux，"integrity，firmnessandknowledge；thefirsttwoareequallyfoundamongthedeputiesofthethreeorders；butknowledgewillbemoregenerallyfoundintheThird—Estate，whichismoreaccustomedtopublicaffairs。"
"Aneworderofthingsisunfoldingbeforeus，"saystheAbbé
LegrandinthenameoftheclergyofChateauroux；"theveilofprejudiceisbeingtornawayandgivingplacetoReason。SheispossessingherselfofallFrenchhearts，attackingattherootwhateverisbasedonformeropinionandderivingherpoweronlyfromherself。"
Notonlydotheprivilegedclassesmakeadvancesbutitisnoefforttothem；theyusethesamelanguageasthepeopleoftheThird—
Estate；theyaredisciplesofthesamephilosophersandseemtostartfromthesameprinciples。ThenobilityofClermontinBeauvoisis[57]
ordersitsdeputies"todemand，firstofall，anexplicitdeclarationoftherightsbelongingtoallmen。"ThenoblesofMantesandMeulanaffirm"thatpoliticalprinciplesareasabsoluteasmoralprinciples，sincebothhavereasonforacommonbasis。"ThenoblesofRheimsdemand"thatthekingbeentreatedtoorderthedemolitionoftheBastille。"Frequently，aftersuchexpressionsandwithsuchayieldingdisposition，thedelegatesofthenoblesandclergyaregreetedintheassembliesofthe’Third—Estatewiththeclappingofhands，"tears"
andenthusiasm。Onwitnessingsucheffusionshowcanoneavoidbelievinginconcord？Andhowcanoneforeseestrifeatthefirstturnoftheroadonwhichtheyhavejustfraternallyenteredhandinhand？
Wisdomofthismelancholystampisnottheirs。Theysetoutwiththeprinciplethatman，andespeciallythemanofthepeople，isgood；
whyconjecturethathemaydesireevilforthosewhowishhimwell？
Theyareconscientiousintheirbenevolenceandsympathyforhim。
Notonlydotheyutterthesesentimentsbuttheygivethemproof。
"Atthismoment，"saysacontemporary，[58]"themostactivepityanimatesallbreasts；thegreatdreadoftheopulentistoappearinsensible。"ThearchbishopofParis，subsequentlyfollowedandstoned，isthedonatorof100，000crownstothehospitaloftheH？tel—
Dieu。TheintendantBerthier，whoistobemassacred，drawsupthenewassessment—rolloftheIle—de—France，equalizingthetaille，whichactallowshimtoabatetherate，atfirst，aneighth，andnext，aquarter[59]。ThefinancierBeaujonconstructsahospital。Neckerrefusesthesalaryofhisplaceandlendsthetreasurytwomillionstore—establishpubliccredit。TheDucdeCharost，from1770[60]down，abolishesseigniorialcorvéesonhisdomainandfoundsahospitalinhisseignioryofMeillant。ThePrincedeBeaufremont，thepresidentsdeVezet，deChamolles，deChaillot，withmanyseigniorsbesideinFranche—Comté，followtheexampleofthekinginemancipatingtheirserfs[61]。ThebishopofSaint—Claudedemands，inspiteofhischapter，theenfranchisementofhismainmorts。TheMarquisdeMirabeauestablishesonhisdomaininLimousinagratuitousbureauforthesettlementoflawsuits，whiledaily，atFleury，hecausesninehundredpoundsofcheapbreadtobemadefortheuseof"thepoorpeople，whofighttoseewhoshallhaveit。"[62]M。deBarral，bishopofCastres，directshiscuratestopreachandtodiffusethecultivationofpotatoes。TheMarquisdeGuerchyhimselfmountsonthetopofapileofhaywithArthurYoungtolearnhowtoconstructahay—stack。TheMarquisdeLasteyrieimportslithographyintoFrance。
Anumberofgrandseigniorsandprelatesfigureintheagriculturalsocieties，composeortranslateusefulbooks，familiarizethemselveswiththeapplicationsofscience，studypoliticaleconomy，informthemselvesaboutindustries，andinterestthemselves，eitherasamateursorpromoters，ineverypublicamelioration。"Never，"saysLacretelleagain，"weretheFrenchsocombinedtogethertocombattheevilstowhichnaturemakesuspaytribute，andthosewhichinathousandwayscreepintoallsocialinstitutions。"Canitbeadmittedthatsomanygoodintentionsthusoperatingtogetheraretoendindestruction？—Alltakecourage，governmentaswellasthehigherclass，inthethoughtofthegoodaccomplished，orwhichtheydesiretoaccomplish。ThekingremembersthathehasrestoredcivilrightstotheProtestants，abolishedpreliminarytorture，suppressedthecorvéeinkind，establishedthefreecirculationofgrains，institutedprovincialassemblies，builtupthemarine，assistedtheAmericans，emancipatedhisownserfs，diminishedtheexpensesofhishousehold，employedMalesherbes，TurgotandNecker，givenfullplaytothepress，andlistenedtopublicopinion[63]。Nogovernmentdisplayedgreatermildness；onthe14thofJuly，1789，onlysevenprisonerswereconfinedintheBastille，ofwhomonewasanidiot，anotherkepttherebyhisfamily，andfourunderthechargeofcounterfeiting[64]。Nosovereignwasmorehumane，morecharitable，morepreoccupiedwiththeunfortunate。In1784，theyearofinundationsandepidemics，herendersassistancetotheamountofthreemillions。Appealsaremadetohimdirect，evenforpersonalaccidents。Onthe8thofJune，1785，hesendstwohundredlivrestothewifeofaBretonlaboring—manwho，alreadyhavingtwochildren，bringsthreeatonceintotheworld[65]。Duringaseverewinterheallowsthepoordailytoinvadehiskitchen。Itisquiteprobablethat，nexttoTurgot，heisthemanofhisdaywholovedthepeoplemost。——Hisdelegatesunderhimconformtohisviews；IhavereadcountlesslettersbyintendantswhotrytoappearaslittleTurgots。"Onebuildsahospital，anotheradmitsartisansathistable；"[66]acertainindividualundertakesthedrainingofamarsh。M。delaTour，inProvence，issobeneficentduringaperiodoffortyyearsthattheTiers—Etatvotehimagoldmedalinspiteofhimself[67]。Agovernordeliversacourseoflecturesoneconomicalbread—making。—Whatpossibledangeristhereforshepherdsofthiskindamidsttheirflocks？OnthekingconvokingtheStates—Generalnobodyhad"anysuspicion，"norfearofthefuture。"AnewStateconstitutionisspokenofasaneasyperformance，andasamatterofcourse。"[68]—"ThebestandmostvirtuousmenseeinthisthebeginningofaneweraofhappinessforFranceandforthewholecivilizedworld。Theambitiousrejoiceinthebroadfieldopentotheirdesires。Butitwouldhavebeenimpossibletofindthemostmorose，themosttimid，themostenthusiasticofmenanticipatinganyoneoftheextraordinaryeventstowardswhichtheassembledstatesweredrifting。"
Notes:
[1]Macaulay。
[2]Stendhal，"Rome，NaplesetFlorence，"371。
[3]Morellet，"Mémoires，"I。139（onthewritingsandconversationsofDiderot，d，Holbachandtheatheists）。"Atthattime，inthisphilosophy，allseemedinnocentenough，itbeingconfinedtothelimitsofspeculation，andneverseeking，eveninitsboldestflights，anythingbeyondacalmintellectualexercise。
[4]"L’Hommeauxquaranteécus。"Cf。Voltaire，"Mémoires，"thesuppersgivenbyFrederickII。"Neverinanyplaceintheworldwastheregreaterfreedomofconversationconcerningthesuperstitionsofmankind。
[5]Morellet，Mémoires，"I。133。
[6]Galiani，"Correspondance，passim。
[7]Bachaumont，III。93（1766），II。202（1765）。
[8]Geffroy，"GustaveIII。，"I。114。
[9]Villemain，"TableaudelaLitteratureaudix—huitièmesiècle，"
IV。409。
[10]Grimm，"corresp。littéraire，"IV。176。DeSégur，"Mémoires，"I。113。
[11]"PrincessedeBabylone。"—Cf。"leMondain。"
[12]HerewemayhaveanimportantmotiveforthesocialistattitudestowardssexualmoralityasitwasduringtheactivienineteenseventiesuntiltheunexpectedappearanceofAIDSputanabruptendtotheproceedings。（SR。）
[13]Mme。d’Epinay，ed。Boiteau，I。216:atasuppergivenbyMlle。Quinault，thecomedian，atwhicharepresentSaint—Lambert，thePrincede……，DuclosandMme。d’Epinay。
[14]Forexample，thefatherofMarmant，amilitarygentleman，who，havingwonthecrossofSt。Louisattwenty—eight，abandonstheservicebecausehefindsthatpromotionisonlyforpeopleofthecourt。Inretirementonhisestatesheisaliberal，teachinghissontoreadthereportsmadebyNecker。（MarshalMarmont，"Mémoires，"I。9）。
[15]Aubertin，"L’Espritpublic，"inthe18thcentury，p。7。
[16]Montesquieu，"LettresPersanes，"（Letter61）。—Cf。
Voltaire，（"D？nerduComtedeBoulainvilliers"）。
[17]Aubertin，pp。281，282，285，289。
[18]HoraceWalpole，"LettersandCorrespondence，"Sept。27th，1765，October18th，28th，andNovember19th，1766。
[19]"JournaletMémoiresdeCollé，"publishedbyH。Bonhomme，II。24（October，1755），andIII。165（October1767）。
[20]"Corresp。littéraire，"byGrimm（September，October，1770）。
[21]Mme。DeGenlis，"AdèleetThéodore，"I，312。
[22]DeGoncourt，"Lafemmeaudix—huitièmesiècle，"371—373。—
Bachaumont，I。224（April13，1763）。
[23]Mme。deGenlis，"AdèleetThéodore，"II。326。
[24]"TableaudeParis，"III。44。
[25]Métra。"Correspondancesecrète，"XVII。387（March7，1785）。
[26]DeGoncourt，ibid。456。—VicomtessedeNoailles，"ViedelaPrincessedePoix，"formerlydeBeauvau。
[27]TheAbbédeLatteignaut，canonofRheims，theauthorofsomelightpoetryandconvivialsongs，"hasjustcomposedforNicolet’stheateraparadeinwhichtheintrigueissupportedbyagoodmanybroadjests，verymuchinthefashionatthistime。ThecourtierswhogivethetonetothistheaterthinkthecanonofRheimssuperb。"
（Bachaumont，IV。174，November，1768）。
[28]Bachaumont，III。253。—Chateaubriand，"Mémoires，"I。
246。
[29]Champfort，279。
[30]MerlindeThionville，"Vieetcorrespondance，"byJeanRaynaud。（"LaChartreuseduValSaint—Pierre。"Readtheentirepassage）。—"SouvenirsManuscrits，"byM—……
[31]Rivarol，"Mémoires，"I。344。
[32]Mercier，IV。142。"InAuvergne，saysM。deMontlosier，I
formedformyselfasocietyofpriests，menofwit，someofwhomweredeistsandothersopenatheists，withwhomIcarriedonacontestwithmybrother。"（"Mémoires，"I。37）。
[33]Lafayette。"Mémoires，"III。58。
[34]"Dict。Phil。"article"Wheat。"—ThemostimportantworkofQuesnayisoftheyear1758，"Tableauéconomique。"
[35]D’Argenson，"Mémoires，"IV。141；VI。320，465；VII。23；
VIII。153，（1752，1753，1754）。—Rousseau’sdiscourseonInequalitybelongsalsoto1753。Onthissteadymarchofopinionconsulttheexcellentworkofd’Aubertin，"L’Espritpublicaudix—
huitièmesiècle。"
[36]ThisseemstobepropheticofthenightofAugust4，1789。
[37]"Corresp。deLaurettedeMalboissière，"publishedbytheMarquisedelaGrange。（Sept。4，1762，November8，1762）。
[38]MadameduDeffantinalettertoMadamedeChoiseul，（quotedbyGeffroy），"GustaveetlacourdeFrance，"I。279。
[39]Geffroy，ibid。I。232，241，245。
[40]Geffroy，ibid。I。267，281。SeelettersbyMadamedeBoufflers（October，1772，July1774）。
[41]Ibid……I。285。ThelettersofMme。delaMarch（1776，1777，1779）。
[42]Avictimofreligiousrancoragainsttheprotestants，whosecause，takenopbyVoltaire，excitedgreatindignation。—TR。
[43]Bachaumont，III。14（March28，1766。Walpole，Oct。6，1775）。
[44]Geffloy，ibid。（AletterbyMmeSta？l，5776）。
[45]Collé，"Journal，"III。437（1770）:"WomenhavegottheupperhandwiththeFrenchtosuchanextent，theyhavesosubjugatedthem，thattheyneitherfeelnorthinkexceptastheydo。"
[46]"Correspondance，"byMétra，III。200；IV。131。
[47]"MémoiresduChancelierPasquier，_Ed。PlonParis1893，Vol。
I。page26。
[48]DeVaublanc，"Souvenirs，"I。117，377。
[49]DeSégur，"Mémoires，"I。17。
[50]Ibid。I。151。"IsawtheentireCourtatthetheaterinthechateauatVersaillesenthusiasticallyapplaudVoltaire’stragedyof’Brutus，’andespeciallytheselines:
JesuisfilsdeBrutus，etjeporteenmoncoeurLalibertégravéeetlesroisenhorreur。"
[51]DeLauzun，80（inrelationtohisexpeditionintoCorsica）。
[52]DeSégur，I。87。
[53]TheassembliesofBerryandHaute—Guyennebeganin1778and1779；thoseofothergeneralshipsin1787。Allfunctioneduntil1789。（Cf。LéoncedeLavergne，"LesAssembléesprovinciales"）。
[54]LéoncedeLavergne，ibid。26，55，183。ThetaxdepartmentoftheprovincialassemblyofTourslikewisemakesitsdemandsontheprivilegedclassinthematteroftaxation。
[55]Procés—verbauxoftheprov。ass。ofNormandy，thegeneralshipofAlen？on，252。—Cf。Archivesnationales，II，1149:in1778inthegeneralshipofMoulins，thirty—ninepersons，mostlynobles，supplyfromtheirownfunds18，950livrestothe60，000
livresallowedbythekingforroadsandasylums。
[56]Archivesnationales，procès—verbauxandregistersoftheStates—General，vol。XLIX。p。712，714（thenoblesandclergyofDijon）；vol。XVI。p。183（thenoblesofAuxerre）vol。XXIX。
pp。352，455，458（theclergyandnoblesofBerry）；vol。CL。p。266
（theclergyandnoblesofTours）；vol。XXIX；theclergyandnoblesofChateauroux，（January29，1789）；pp。572，582。vol。XIII。
765（thenoblesofAutun）。—Seeasasummaryofthewhole，the"RésumédesCahiers"byPrud’homme，3vols。
[57]Prud’homme，ibid……II。39，51，59。DeLavergne，384。
In1788，twohundredgentlemenofthefirstfamiliesofDauphinysign，conjointlywiththeclergyandtheThird—Estateoftheprovince，anaddresstothekinginwhichoccursthefollowingpassage:"Neithertimenorobligationlegitimizesdespotism；therightsofmenderivefromnaturealoneandareindependentoftheirengagements。"
[58]Lacretelle，"Hist。deFranceaudix—huitièmesiècle，"V。2。
[59]Procès—verbeauxoftheprov。ass。oftheIle—de—France（1787），p。127。
[60]DeLavergne，ibid……52，369。
[61]"Lecridelaraison，"byClerget，curéd’Onans（1789），p。258。
[62]LucasdeMontigny，"MémoiresdeMirabeau，"I。290，368。—
ThérondeMontaugé，"L’agricultureetlesclassesruralesdanslepaysToulousain，"p。14。
[63]"ForeignersgenerallycouldscarcelyformanideaofthepowerofpublicopinionatthistimeinFrance；theycanwithdifficultycomprehendthenatureofthatinvisiblepowerwhichcommandsevenintheking’spalace。"（Necker，1784，quotedbyDeTocqueville）。
[64]GranierdeCassagnac，II。236。—M。deMalesherbes，accordingtocustom，inspectedthedifferentstateprisons，atthebeginningofthereignofLouisXVI。"Hetoldmehimselfthathehadonlyreleasedtwo。"（SenacdeMeilhan，"Dugouvemement，desmoeurs，etdesconditionsenFrance。"）。
[65]Archivesnationales，II。1418，1149，F。14，2073。
（Assistancerenderedtovarioussufferingprovincesandplaces。）
[66]Aubertin，p。484（accordingtoBachaumont）。
[67]DeLavergne，472。
[68]MathieuDumas，"Mémoires，"I。426。—SirSamuelRomilly，"Mémoires，"I。99。——"Confidenceincreasedeventoextravagance，"
（Mme。deGenlis）。—Onthe29thJune，1789，NeckersaidatthecouncilofthekingatMarly，"WhatismorefrivolousthanthefearsnowentertainedconcerningtheorganizationoftheassemblyoftheStates—General？Nolawcanbepassedwithoutobtainingtheking’sassent"（DeBarentin，"Mémoires，"p。187）。—AddressoftheNationalAssemblytoitsconstituents，October2，1789。"Agreatrevolutionofwhichtheideashouldhaveappearedchimericalafewmonthssincehasbeeneffectedamongstus。"
CHAPTERIII。THEMIDDLECLASS。
I。THEPAST。
TheformerspiritoftheThird—Estate。—Publicmattersconcernthekingonly。—LimitsoftheJansenistandparliamentarianopposition。
Thenewphilosophy，confinedtoaselectcircle，hadlongservedasamereluxuryforrefinedsociety。Merchants，manufacturers，shopkeepers，lawyers，attorneys，physicians，actors，professors，curates，everydescriptionoffunctionary，employeeandclerk，theentiremiddleclass，hadbeenabsorbedwithitsowncares。Thehorizonofeachwaslimited，beingthatoftheprofessionoroccupationwhicheachexercised，thatofthecorporationinwhicheachonewascomprised，ofthetowninwhicheachonewasborn，and，attheutmost，thatoftheprovincewhicheachoneinhabited[1]。Adearthofideascoupledwithconsciousdiffidencerestrainedthebourgeoiswithinhishereditarybarriers。Hiseyesseldomchancedtowanderoutsideofthemintotheforbiddenanddangerousterritoryofstateaffairs；hardlywasafurtiveandrareglancebestowedonanyofthepublicacts，onthematterswhich"belongedtotheking。"Therewasnocriticalirritabilitythen，exceptwiththebar，thecompulsorysatelliteoftheParliament，andbornealonginitsorbit。In1718，afterasessionoftheroyalcourt（litdejustice），thelawyersofParisbeingonastriketheRegentexclaimsangrilyandwithastonishment，"What！thosefellowsmeddlingtoo！"[2]Itmustbestatedfurthermorethatmanykeptthemselvesinthebackground。"Myfatherandmyself，"afterwardswritestheadvocateBarbier，"tooknopartintheuproars，amongthosecausticandturbulentspirits。"andheaddsthissignificantarticleoffaith:"Ibelievethatonehastofulfillhisdutieshonorably，withoutconcerningoneselfwithstateaffairs，inwhichonehasnomissionandexercisesnopower。"DuringthefirsthalfoftheeighteenthcenturyIamabletodiscoverbutonecenterofoppositionintheThird—Estate，theParliament；andaroundit，feedingtheflame，theancientGallicanorJansenistspirit。"ThegoodcityofParis，"writesBarbierin1733，"isJansenistfromtoptobottom，"andnotalonethemagistrates，thelawyers，theprofessors，thebestamongthebourgeoisie，"butagainthemassoftheParisians，men，womenandchildren，allupholdingthatdoctrine，withoutcomprehendingit，orunderstandinganyofitsdistinctionsandinterpretations，outofhatredtoRomeandtheJesuits。Women，thesilliest，andevenchambermaids，wouldbehackedtopiecesforit……"Thispartyisincreasedbythehonestfolksofthekingdomwhodetestpersecutionsandinjustice。Accordingly，whenthevariouschambersofmagistrates，inconjunctionwiththelawyers，tendertheirresignationsandfileoutofthepalace"amidstacountlessmultitude，thecrowdexclaims:BeholdthetrueRomans，thefathersofthecountry！andasthetwocounselorsPucelleandMenguypassalongtheyflingthemcrowns。"ThequarrelbetweentheParliamentandtheCourt，constantlyrevived，isoneofthesparkswhichprovokesthegrandfinalexplosion，whiletheJansenistembers，smolderingintheashes，aretobeofusein1791whentheecclesiasticaledificecomestobeattacked。But，withinthisoldchimney—corneronlywarmembersarenowfound，firebrandscoveredup，sometimesscatteringsparksandflames，butinthemselvesandbythemselves，notincendiary；theflameiskeptwithinboundsbyitsnature，anditssupplieslimititsheat。
TheJansenististoogoodaChristiannottorespectpowersinauguratedfromabove。Theparliamentarian，conservativethroughhisprofession，wouldbehorrifiedatoverthrowingtheestablishedorderofthings。Bothcombatfortraditionandagainstinnovation；hence，afterhavingdefendedthepastagainstarbitrarypowertheyaretodefenditagainstrevolutionaryviolence，andtofall，theoneintoimpotencyandtheotherintooblivion。
II。CHANGEINTHECONDITIONOFTHEBOURGEOIS。
Changeintheconditionofthebourgeois。—Hebecomeswealthy。
—HemakesloanstotheState。—Thedangerofhiscreditorship。—
Heinterestshimselfinpublicmatters。
Theuprisingis，however，latetocatchonamongthemiddleclass，and，beforeitcantakehold，theresistantmaterialmustgraduallybemadeinflammable。——IntheeighteenthcenturyagreatchangetakesplaceintheconditionoftheThird—Estate。Thebourgeoishasworked，manufactured，traded，earnedandsavedmoney，andhasdailybecomericherandricher。[3]Thisgreatexpansionofenterprises，oftrade，ofspeculationandoffortunesdatesfromLaw；[4]arrestedbywaritreappearswithmorevigorandmoreanimationateachintervalofpeaceafterthetreatyofAix—la—
Chapellein1748，andthatofParisin1763，andespeciallyafterthebeginningofthereignofLouisXVI。TheexportsofFrancewhichamountedto106millionsin1720
124millionsin1735
192millionsin1748
257millionsin1755
309millionsin1776
354millionsin1788。
In1786SaintDomingoaloneshipsbacktoFrancefor131
millionsofitsproducts，andinreturnreceives44millionsinmerchandise。Asaresultoftheseexchangeswesee，atNantes，andatBordeaux，thecreationofcolossalcommercialhouses。"IconsiderBordeaux，saysArthurYoung，asricheranddoingmorebusinessthananycityinEnglandexceptLondon；……oflateyearstheprogressofmaritimecommercehasbeenmorerapidinFrancethaneveninEngland。"[5]Accordingtoanadministratoroftheday，ifthetaxesontheconsumptionofproductsdailyincreasetherevenue，thisisbecausetheindustrysince1774hasdevelopedanumberofnewproducts[6]。Andthisprogressisregularandconstant。"Wemaycalculate，"saysNeckerin1781，"onanincreaseoftwomillionsayearonallthedutiesonconsumption。"——Inthisgreatexertionofinnovation，laborandengineering，Paris，constantlygrowing，isthecentralworkshop。Itenjoys，toamuchgreaterextentthantoday，themonopolyofallworksofintelligenceandtaste，books，pictures，engravings，statues，jewelry，toiletdetails，carriages，furniture，articlesoffashionandrarity，whateveraffordspleasureandornamentationforanelegantworldlysociety；allEuropeissuppliedbyit。In1774itstradeinbooksisestimatedat45millions，andthatofLondonatonlyone—quarterofthatsum[7]。Upontheprofitsmanyimmenseandevenmorenumerousmoderatefortuneswerebuiltup，andthesenowbecameavailableforinvestment。——Infact，weseethenoblesthandsstretchingouttoreceivethem，princesoftheblood，provincialassemblies，assembliesoftheclergy，and，attheheadofall，theking，who，themostneedy，borrowsattenpercentandisalwaysinsearchofadditionallenders。AlreadyunderFleury，thedebthasaugmentedto18millionsininterests，andduringtheSevenyears’War，to34millions。UnderLouisXVI。，M。Neckerborrowsacapitalof530millions；M。JolydeFleury，300millions；M。deCalonne，800millions；inall1630millionsoveraperiodoftenyears。Theinterestofthepublicdebt，only45millionsin1755，reaches106millionsin1776andamountsto206millionsin1789[8]。
Whatcreditorswhichthesefewfigurestellusabout！AstheThird—
Estate，itmustbenoted，isthesoleclassmakingandsavingmoney，nearlyallthesecreditorsbelongit。Thousandsofothersmustbeaddedtothese。Inthefirstplace，thefinancierswhomakeadvancestothegovernment，advancesthatareindispensable，because，fromtimeimmemorial，ithaseatenitscornontheblade，sothepresentyearisalwaysgnawingintotheproductofcomingyears；thereare80millionsofadvancesin1759，and170millionsin1783。Inthesecondplacetherearesomanysuppliers，largeandsmall，who，onallpartsoftheterritory，keepaccountswiththegovernmentfortheirsuppliesandforpublicworks，averitablearmyandincreasingdaily，sincethegovernment，impelledbycentralization，takessoleresponsibilityforallventures，and，requestedbypublicopinion，itincreasesthenumberofundertakingsusefultothepublic。UnderLouisXV。theStatebuildssixthousandleaguesofroads，andunderLouisXVI。in1788，toguardagainstfamine，itpurchasesgraintotheamountoffortymillions。
ThroughthisincreaseofactivityanditsdemandsforcapitaltheStatebecomestheuniversaldebtor；henceforthpublicaffairsarenolongerexclusivelytheking’sbusiness。Hiscreditorsbecomeuneasyathisexpenditures；foritistheirmoneyhewastes，and，ifheprovesabadadministrator，theywillberuined。Theywanttoknowsomethingofhisbudget，toexaminehisbooks:alenderalwayshastherighttolookafterhissecurities。Weaccordinglyseethebourgeoisraisinghisheadandbeginningtopaycloseattentiontothegreatmachinewhoseperformances，hithertoconcealedfromvulgareyes，have，uptothepresenttime，beenkeptastatesecret。Hebecomesapolitician，and，atthesametime，discontented。Foritcannotbedeniedthatthesematters，inwhichheisinterested，arebadlyconducted。Anyyoungmanofgoodfamilymanagingaffairsinthesamewaywouldbechecked。TheexpensesoftheadministrationoftheStatearealwaysinexcessoftherevenue[9]。Accordingtoofficialadmissions[10]theannualdeficitamountedto70in1770，and80
millionsin1783；whenonehasattemptedtoreducethisithasbeenthroughbankruptcies；onetothetuneoftwomilliardsattheendofthereignofLouisXIV，andanotheralmostequaltoitinthetimeofLaw，andanotheronfromathirdtoahalfofalltheinterestsinthetimeofTerray，withoutmentioningsuppressionsindetail，reductions，indefinitedelaysinpayment，andotherviolentandfraudulentmeanswhichapowerfuldebtoremployswithimpunityagainstafeeblecreditor。"Fifty—sixviolationsofpublicfaithhaveoccurredfromHenryIVdowntotheministryofM。deLoménieinclusive，"[11]whilealastbankruptcy，morefrightfulthantheothers，loomuponthehorizon。Severalpersons，BezenvalandLinguetforinstance，earnestlyrecommenditasanecessaryandsalutaryamputation。Notonlyarethereprecedentsforthis，andinthisrespectthegovernmentwilldonomorethanfollowitsownexample，butsuchisitsdailypractice，sinceitlivesonlyfromdaytoday，bydintofexpedientsanddelays，diggingoneholetostopupanother，andescapingfailureonlythroughtheforcedpatiencewhichitimposesonitscreditors。
Withit，saysacontemporary，peoplewereneversureofanything，beingalwaysobligedtowait[12]。"Weretheircapitalinvestedinitsloans，theycouldneverrelyonafixeddateforthepaymentofinterest。Didtheybuildships，repairhighways，orthesoldiersclothed，theyhadnoguaranteesfortheiradvances，nocertificatesofrepayment，beingreducedtocalculatethechancesinvolvedinaministerialcontractastheywouldtherisksofaboldspeculation。"
Itpaysifitcanandonlywhenitcan，eventhemembersofthehousehold，thepurveyorsofthetableandthepersonalattendantsoftheking。In1753thedomesticsofLouisXVhadreceivednothingforthreeyears。WehaveseenhowhisgroomswentouttobegduringthenightinthestreetsofVersailles；howhispurveyors"hidthemselves；"how，underLouisXVIin1778，therewere792，620francsduetothewine—merchant，and3，467，980francstothepurveyoroffishandmeat[13]。In1788，sogreatisthedistress，theMinisterdeLoménieappropriatesandexpendsthefundsofaprivatesubscriptionraisedforahospital，and，atthetimeofhisresignation，thetreasuryisempty，save450，000francs，halfofwhichheputsinhispocket。Whatanadministration！——Inthepresenceofthisdebtor，evidentlybecominginsolvent，allpeople，farandnear，interestedinhisbusiness，consulttogetherwithalarm，anddebtorsareinnumerable，consistingofbankers，merchants，manufacturers，employees，lendersofeverykindanddegree，and，inthefrontrank，thecapitalists，whohaveputalltheirmeansforlifeintohishands，andwhoaretobegshouldhenotpaythemannuallythe44millionsheowesthem；theindustrialistsandtraderswhohaveentrustedtheircommercialintegritytohimandwhowouldshrinkwithhorrorfromfailureasitsissue；andafterthesecometheircreditors，theirclerks，theirrelations，inshort，thelargestportionofthelaboringandpeaceableclasswhich，thusfar，hadobeyedwithoutamurmurandneverdreamedofbringingtheestablishedorderofthingsunderitscontrol。Henceforththisclasswillexercisecontrolattentively，distrustfullyandangrily。Woetothosewhoareatfault，fortheywellknowthattheruinoftheStateistheirruin。
III。SOCIALPROMOTION。
Herisesonthesocialladder。—Thenobledrawsneartohim。
—Hebecomescultivated。—Heentersintosociety。—Heregardshimselfastheequalofthenoble。—Privilegesanannoyance。
Meanwhilethisclasshasclimbedupthesocialladder，and，throughitsélite，rejoinedthoseinthehighestposition。FormerlybetweenDoranteandM。Jourdain，betweenDonJuanandM。Dimanche，[14]
betweenM。SotenvillehimselfandGeorgesDandin，thedistancewasvast；everythingwasdifferent—dress，house，habits，characters，pointsofhonor，ideasandlanguage。OntheonehandthenoblesaredrawnnearertotheThird—Estateand，ontheother，theThird—Estateisdrawnnearertothenobles，actualequalityhavingprecededequalityasaright。——Ontheapproachoftheyear1789itwasdifficulttodistinguishonefromtheotherinthestreet。Theswordisnolongerwornbygentlemeninthecity；theyhaveabandonedembroideriesandlaces，andwalkaboutinplainfrock—coats，ordrivethemselvesintheircabriolets[15]。"ThesimplicityofEnglishcustoms，"andthecustomsoftheThird—Estateseemtothembetteradaptedtoordinarylife。Theirprominenceprovesirksometothemandtheygrowwearyofbeingalwaysonparade。Henceforththeyacceptfamiliaritythattheymayenjoyfreedomofaction，andarecontent"tominglewiththeirfellow—citizenswithoutobstacleorostentation。—
—"Itiscertainlyagravesign，andtheoldfeudalspiritshavereasontotremble。TheMarquisdeMirabeau，onlearningthathissonwishestoactashisownlawyer，consoleshimselfbyseeingothers，ofstillhigherrank，domuchworse[16]。
"Asitwasdifficulttoaccepttheideathatthegrandsonofmyfather，whomwejusthadseenpassbyonthepromenade，everybody，youngandold，raisingtheirhatstohimfromafar，wouldsoonbeseenatthebarofalowertribunal，theretocontestminorlegalmatterswithpettifoggers；butIsaidtomyself，however，thatLouisXIVwouldbestillmoreastonishedhadheseenthewifeofhisgrand—successordressedinapeasant’sfrockandapron，withnoattendants，notapageoranyoneelse，runningaboutthepalaceandtheterraces，requestingthefirstscampinafrock—coatsheencounteredtogiveherhishand，whichhesimplydoes，allthewaydowntothefootofthesteps。"
Butthelevelingofmannersandappearancesoflifereflected，indeed，onlyanequalizationofmindsandtempers。Theantiquescenerybeingtornawayindicatesthedisappearanceofthesentimentstowhichitbelonged。Itindicatedgravity，dignity，customofself—
controlandofexposed，inauthorityandcommand。Itwastherigidandsumptuousparadeofasocialcorpsofstaff—officers。Atthistimetheparadeisdiscontinuedbecausethecorpshasbeendissolved。
Ifthenoblesdresslikethebourgeoisieitisowingtotheirhavingbecomebourgeois，thatistosay，idlersretiredfrombusiness，withnothingtodobuttotalkandamusethemselves。——Undoubtedlytheyamusethemselvesandconverselikepeopleofrefinement；butitisnotverydifficulttoequaltheminthisrespect。NowthattheThird—
Estatehasacquireditswealthagoodmanycommonershavebecomepeopleofsociety。ThesuccessorsofSamuelBernardarenolongersomanyTurcarets，butParis—Duverneys，Saint—Jameses，Labordes，refinedmen，peopleofcultureandoffeeling，possessingtact，literaryandphilosophicalattainments，benevolent，givingpartiesandknowinghowtoentertain[17]。Withthem，slightlydifferent，wefindthesamecompanyaswithagrandlord，thesameideasandthesametone。Theirsons，messieursdeVillemer，deFrancueil，d’Epinay，throwmoneyoutofthewindowwithasmucheleganceastheyoungdukeswithwhomtheysup。Aparvenuwithmoneyandintellectsoonlearnstheropes，andhisson，ifnothimself，isinitiated:afewyears’exercisesinanacademy，adancing—master，andoneofthefourthousandpublicofficeswhichconfernobility，supplyhimwiththedeficientappearances。
Now，inthesetimes，assoonasoneknowshowtoconformtothelawsofgood—breeding，howtobowandhowtoconverse，onepossessesapatentforadmissioneverywhere。AnEnglishman[18]remarksthatoneofthefirstexpressionsemployedinpraiseofamanis，"hehasaverygracefuladdress。"TheMaréchaledeLuxembourg，sohigh—spirited，alwaysselectsLaharpeashercavalier，because"heoffershisarmsowell。"——Thecommonernotonlyentersthedrawing—room，ifheisfittedforit，buthestandsforemostinitifhehasanytalent。Thefirstplaceinconversation，andeveninpublicconsideration，isforVoltaire，thesonofanotary，forDiderot，thesonofacutler，forRousseau，thesonofawatchmaker，ford’Alembert，afoundlingbroughtupbyaglazier；and，afterthegreatmenhavedisappeared，andnowritersofthesecondgradeareleft，theleadingduchessesarestillcontenttohavetheseatsattheirtablesoccupiedbyChampfort，anotherfoundling，Beaumarchais，thesonofanotherwatchmaker，Laharpe，supportedandraisedoncharity，Marmontel，thesonofavillagetailor，andmayothersoflessnote，inshort，everyparvenupossessingwit。
Thenobility，toperfecttheirownaccomplishments，borrowtheirpensandaspiretotheirsuccesses。"WehaverecoveredfromthoseoldGothicandabsurdprejudicesagainstliteraryculture，"saysthePrincedeHénin；[19]"asformyselfIwouldcomposeacomedyto—morrowifIhadthetalent，andifIhappenedtobemadealittleangry，I
wouldperforminit。"And，infact，"theVicomtedeSégur，sonoftheministerofwar，playsthepartoftheloverin’Nina’onMlle。deGuimard’sstagewiththeactorsoftheItalianComedy。"[20]OneofMme。deGenlis’spersonages，returningtoParisafterfiveyears’
absence，saysthat"heleftmenwhollydevotedtoplay，hunting，andtheirsmallhouses，andhefindsthemallturnedauthors。"[21]Theyhawkabouttheirtragedies，comedies，novels，eclogues，dissertationsandtreatisesofallkindsfromonedrawingroomtoanother。Theystrivetogettheirpiecesplayed；theypreviouslysubmitthemtothejudgmentofactors；theysolicitawordofpraisefromtheMercure；
theyreadfablesatthesittingsoftheAcademy。Theybecomeinvolvedinthebickering，inthevainglory，inthepettinessofliterarylife，andstillworse，ofthelifeofthestage，inasmuchastheyarethemselvesperformersandplayincompanywithrealactorsinhundredsofprivatetheaters。Addtothis，ifyouplease，otherpettyamateurtalentssuchassketchinginwater—colors，writingsongs，andplayingtheflute。——Afterthisamalgamationofclassesandthistransferofpartswhatremainsofthesuperiorityofthenobles？Bywhatspecialmerit，throughwhatrecognizedcapacityaretheytosecurerespectofamemberoftheThird—Estate？Outsideoffashionableeleganceandafewpointsofbreeding，inwhatrespecttheydifferfromhim？Whatsuperioreducation，whatfamiliaritywithaffairs，whatexperiencewithgovernment，whatpoliticalinstruction，whatlocalascendancy，whatmoralauthoritycanbeallegedtosanctiontheirpretensionstothehighestplaces？——Inthewayofpractice，theThird—Estatealreadydoesthework，providingthequalifiedmen，theintendants，theministerialhead—clerks，thelayandecclesiasticaladministrators，thecompetentlaborersofallkindsanddegrees。CalltomindtheMarquisofwhomwehavejustspoken，aformercaptainintheFrenchguards，amanoffeelingandofloyalty，admittingattheelectionsof1789that"theknowledgeessentialtoadeputywouldmostgenerallybefoundintheThird—Estate，themindtherebeingaccustomedtobusiness。"——Inthewayoftheory:thecommonerisaswell—informedasthenoble，andhethinksheisstillbetterinformed，because，havingreadthesamebooksandarrivedatthesameprinciples，hedoesnot，likehim，stophalf—wayontheroadtotheirconsequences，butplungesheadlongtotheverydepthsofthedoctrine，convincedthathislogicisclairvoyanceandthatheismoreenlightenedbecauseheistheleastprejudiced。——Considertheyoungmenwho，abouttwentyyearsofagein1780，borninindustriousfamilies，accustomedtoeffortandabletoworktwelvehoursaday，aBarnave，aCarnot，aRoederer，aMerlindeThionville，aRobespierre，anenergeticstock，feelingtheirstrength，criticizingtheirrivals，awareoftheirweakness，comparingtheirownapplicationandeducationtotheirlevityandincompetence，and，atthemomentwhenyouthfulambitionstirswithinthem，seeingthemselvesexcludedinadvancefromanysuperiorposition，consignedforlifetosubalternemployment，andsubjectedineverycareertotheprecedenceofsuperiorswhotheyhardlyrecognizeastheirequals。AttheartilleryexaminationswhereChérin，thegenealogist，refusescommoners，andwheretheAbbéBosen，amathematician，rejectstheignorant，itisdiscoveredthatcapacityiswantingamongthenoblepupilsandnobilityamongthecapablepupils，[22]thetwoqualitiesofgentilityandintelligenceseemingtoexcludeeachother，astherearebutfourorfiveoutofahundredpupilswhocombinethetwoconditions。Now，associetyatthistimeismixed，suchtestsarefrequentandeasy。Whetherlawyer，physician，ormanofletters，amemberoftheThird—Estatewithwhomadukeconversesfamiliarly，whositsinadiligencealongsideofacount—colonelofhussars，[23]canappreciatehiscompanionorhisinterlocutor，weighhisideas，testhismeritandesteemhimathiscorrectvalue，andIamsurethathedoesnotoverratehim。——