252。THETOTALSOCIALDEVELOPMENT。THEPRESENTSITUATION
　　Havingthusoutlinedingeneraltherelationbetweenclassdominanceandconstitutionaldevelopment，itremainsbrieflytocharacterizethewholecourseofsocialdevelopment，andtoglanceatpresentstrugglesandtheirprobableconsequences：
　　a）Astothefirst，wehavethesocialisticoptimistichopeforthedisappearanceofallclassantithesesoveragainstthepessimistictheorywhichfindsinhistoryonlyaprogressiveintensificationofclasscontrasts，Thesocialisticideapresupposesadisappearanceofalldivisionsoflaborandoccupation，ofalldifferencesofrace，talents，capabilities，ofabolitionofcityandcountry，awipingoutofallthemorehighlyendowedaswellasthedisappearanceofallrawandminorforces，with，sofaraspossible，afuturebreedingsystemwhichwillproducewhollylikehumanbeingsofamediocretype。Wecannotseewheretheprogresswouldcomeinhere，andstilllesshowandthroughwhatsortofcausesandinstitutionswecouldevercometosuchacondition。
　　Ontheotherhandthereisnohistoricalconfirmationoftheideaofaconstantlyincreasingdiversityofclasses。Ifthecontrarywerethecase，thelowerclassesinmodernstateswouldhavetobeontheleveloftheAustraliansortheFuegians。Membersofthesamefolk，ofthesamefamilyofpeoples，alwaysreactupononeanotherbymixtureofblood，language，byotherspiritualandphysicalcontacts，andbyimitation。Muchasindividualsandwholeclassesoccasionallyriseandassertthemselvesasanaristocracy，presentlythereisalwaysariseofthemiddleandlowerclasses，aprocessofequalization。Thetwotendenciessometimesmakethemselvesfeltsimultaneously，butasaruleonefollowstheother，atleastatthehighestpowerofeach。
　　Eachisthenecessaryconsequenceofpsychologicalandsocietarycauses。
　　Morethanthat，wemayassertthatbeyondacertaindegreeofseparationthechasmbetweenhigherandlowerclassescannotgo，unlessasuicidalwarofclassesistofollow。Theprogressofmankind，inpowersofmindandheart，inwell—beingandintechnique，innecessarilyinvolvestheparticipationofthelowerclasses，ofmoreadvancedpeoples，inthisprogress。
　　Itismerelyahowgreattheprogressis，howextensivethedifferentiationclassesmeanwhilebecomes。Theequalizationmustinevitablycome。Inallthis，historyseemstofurnishtheanswertothequestionwhetherclasscontrastsaregrowingmoreorlessextreme。Theolderstateswhichgrewgreatbyconquesthadtheirsystemsofcasteandslavery，theirprohibitionsofmarriagebetweenclasses，theirsharplegaldiscriminationofclasses，theirheredityofoccupations，theirhumansacrificestheirsavagelackofsympathy。Thesewereclassdifferencesmuchgreaterthanthoseknownintheancientcivilizedstates，andthelatterintheirturnhadgreaterantithesesthanmodernstates。WehavenowheresuchaclassdominanceoftherichasprevailedinGreeceandRome。Wehavealsonosuchmobocracyasoccasionallybrokeoutthere。Wehavenosuchdisappearanceofthemiddleclassasthenoccurred，becauseasheirsoftheGreco—Romancivilizationwehavealegalsystemonamuchhigherplane，withmuchmoreindependent，securecivicauthorities，evenin（§；1）therepublics。Inthecivilizedstatesoftodaywehavemorehomogeneousracerelationships，moreequalculturalandmoralrelationships，inspiteofallthenewcontrasts。Nowheretodaydothegreatlandedproprietorsorthecapitalistscontrolasinancienttimes，nowhereisthelaborclasssodisfranchised，sodebased，asweretheancientslaves，sodepravedandpoliticallyincapableasthecityrabbleofthoseeras，sofullofthelustofbloodandofplunderasthemercenariesofancienttimes。
　　Onthewhole，thecausesofthesefactsaresimple。Thespiritualandmoraladvanceshave，inthecourseofhistory，spreadthemselvesmoreandmoretoallclasses。Themoreenlightenedreligioussystems——inEurope，Christianity——untilashorttimeagocontrolledtheentirepeoplessomewhatequally。Theaggregatewelfarehassoincreasedthatthegreaterwealthoftheupperclassesstillleavesroomforabetterstandardoflifeforthelower。Alllaw，allpoliticalandeconomicinstitutionsarehumanized。
　　Theyhaveeliminatedthepitilessseverityoftheoldersocialconditions。
　　Thelegalequality，thefreechoiceofoccupation，thefreedomofsettlement，thefreedomofmarriage，havecombinedtopermitcontrasts，possibilitiesofprogress，crossingsofblood，whichwereformerlyoutofthequestion。
　　Ifancientcivilizationsendedwithworld—languages，World—commercetodayhasproducedaunityofspiritualandmateriallifewhichissocializing；
　　ithascalledintobeingthebeginningsofalegalsystemfortheworld，therapidimitationofallsocialprogressbyonefolkafteranother，asforinstancetheabolitionofslavery，lawsfortheprotectionoflabor，etc。Suchresultswereinconceivabletwoorthreehundredyearsago。
　　Themostimportantmatterafterallisalways，ontheonehand，thechangeintheworldofspiritualenergies，ofeducationofideas，whichisontheonehandofcoursedependentuponcertainmaterialpreconditions，butisnotgivenwiththeminparticular；andontheotherhadthechangesintheentirepolitical，social，andeconomicinstitutions。Afewadditionalwordsmustbesaidonthesesubjects。
　　Thehighertheculturethemoredoesindividualismalsogrow；thatis，thedesireforgain，egoism。Yetatthesametimeallthehigherfeelingsaredeveloped：sympathy，pity，fellow—feelingothersnotrelatives，withfellow—craftsmen，loveofcountry，senseofsocialobligation。Themoredensethepopulationthemoredopeoplelearntohaveconsiderationforoneanother。Thewants，thecustoms，thehabits，theformsofintercoursebecomemoreandmorealike。AseveryoneusestheformSieinaddressingeverybodyelse，soitisoftendifficulttodistinguishtheclothingofthemillionairefromthatofthelaborer。
　　Theincreasingratioofurbanlifeintensifiesthepressureforequality，andtheideaofequality，increasingpoliticalfreedom，causesincreaseofresponsibility。Withincreasingdivisionoflabortherealwayscomesagainthefeelingofsolidarity。Increasinginsightintotheinterdependencesofsocietymakespeoplemoreconsiderate。Morethanall，however，theprocessofsocialeducation，asithasbeenshapedbythehighercivilization，hasaprofoundinfluenceuponsocialstructure。Solongasparentaleducationistheonlytype，orinstructionbyteachersispaidforbytheparents，progressremainsinthenarrowestgroupofthearistocracy。Itadvancesonlyinthefamilywhichisalreadyonahighplane。Whereverthereisaschoolsystemthesituationisdifferent。Thegreatestsocialreformerofantiquity，Solon，afterhehadabolishedslaveryfordebtandhadraisedthesocialstatusofthetrades，proceededtomakethearistocraticschoolsandtheplacesforgymnasticexercisesaccessibletothelargerpartofthefolk。Ademocraticschoolreformshouldbethecapstoneofsocialreform。
　　Themostfar—sightedofpresentEnglishcivilofficersinIndia，whohavelearnedthateverydirectassaultuponthecastesystemisimpossible，areexpressingoflatetheconfidenthopethatthespreadoftheschoolsystemwilldestroycastewithinarelativelynearfuture。Itisclearthatonlyauniversalsocietaryorganizationofinstructionforallmakespossibleacertainfreedominchoiceofoccupation，offersthepossibilityofbringingthetalentedpupilsofthelowerschoolsintothehigher，andabolishesthemostextremesocialantitheseswhichcausedthemostevidentdependence。WemeansuchanorganizationaswaspresentinthegermintheChristianchurch，suchascameintoexistencefortheupperclassesintheMiddleAges，suchastheReformerstriedtogetforallthefolk，suchasthemostprogressivegovernments，particularlyoftheGerman，haveencouragedinthelasthundredyears。ThedecadenceoftheEnglishproletariatinthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcenturyrestedsolelyupontotalneglectofthecivicdutyofmaintainingschools。RobertOwenpointedoutthatschoolsforthechildrenoflaborerswerethecenterofgravityofsocialreform。Nottheschoolalone，butstilltheschoolessentially，andincombinationwiththeothermeansandinstitutionsofphysical，mental，andmoraltraining，controlsthefutureofourlowerclasses。Themoreourwholesystemofcultureandinstructionisdetachedfromthefamily，themoreittakesshapeasagreatindependentorganizationinthehandsofthestate，oftheparishes，ofthecorporations，oftheunions，themorethepublicschoolsaresupplementedbythecontinuationschools，thetradeschools，theartsandcraftschoolsforbothlaborersandmasters，andthewholemiddleclass，themorewilltheintellectualbondsofthecommunityincrease，themorewillcounterweightsbecreatedfortheunfortunatehereditaryclassinfluences。Ifanextensivesystemofchurchandprivateschoolsisadmitted，thewholeinstitutionwillbelessaunitthanwherethestatemoreorlessexclusivelycontrolstheschools。
　　Accordingly，asdemocraticoptimists，wemayalreadybelieveandassertthatallhereditarytransmissionofthehigherqualitiesfallsintothebackgroundascomparedwiththeinfluencesofeducation。Alreadytherehasbeendevelopedinmodernpopulationthatremarkableflexibilityofallphysicalandspiritualqualitieswhichmakesitpossibletomakeanythingwhateveroutofagivenindividual。Itisatalleventscertainthatschool，press，theater，publicopinion，exertuponthewholepopulationmoreandmoreaunifying，levelinginfluence。Aspiritualfluidhasbeencreatedwhichmakesitswayintoalltheporesandtoacertainextentdemocratizessociety。OflatethepopulationofregionssettledbyEuropeancolonistshasbeenmosteffectivelyleveledwherethereisneitherEuropeanaristocracynorEuropeanproletariat，wherethereisageneralfolk—culture，butnotyetageneralschooltrainingofahighgrade，whereaselectionofsturdyimmigrantsconstitutesaveryextensiveaverageofthewholepopulation。
　　Inthissituationwemeetanentirelyleveleddemocraticsociety，inspiteofmuchgreaterextremesofwealththaninEurope。Switzerlandalso，inconnectionwithitssystemofeducation，showssimilartraits。
　　While，aswehaveseenintheforegoingparagraphs，thestatecontrolledschoolsystemandtheentirelegalandconstitutionalorderarethechiefleveragesforsocialprogress，wemustnonethelessconsideralltheeconomic，andespeciallythesocial，institutionsinthestrictsense。Itisindeedthefundamentalideaofourentireoutlinethatitisthesocialinstitutionswhich，whileinconstantcourseofimprovement，whitebecomingmoreandmoreethical，setcertainlimitstothenaturalplayoftheacquisitiveforces；tothegreedofthestrongandtherich，andtothegrowingeconomicdifferencesofincomeandtheircauses。Wehaveshownabove（I，pp。
　　65—66）thatallprogressmusttobesurebeaccompaniedbyconflict；thatthepriceofprogressisthedestructionoftooweakandimperfectindividualsandsocialgroups；that，however，bothininternationalandinnationalconflicts，thepeacefulorderisgaining；thattheformsandmeansofconflictareundergoingconstantlimitations……
　　Wehaveonlytoreckonwithcenturiesinordertosee，forexample，howtheEgypto—Atticusurylegislation，transportedbyCaesartoRome，dominatedtheentireMiddleAges。Afterthebriefperiodofsuppressionbetween1850and1880ithasreappearedandbidsfairtogripthewholeofourprivatelaw。InconnectionwithprotectionofsmallpeasantswemustrememberthattherewassomethingofthesortintheprosperousperiodofancientGreeceandRome，thatitwastakenupagainbythelateremperors，thatafterwardthechurchandtheagrariansocietiesmadeexperimentswithit，thatmonarchy，gatheringstrengthfromthesixteenthtotheeighteenthcenturies，ifnoteverywhere，atleastinmanycases，administeredit，thatinthenineteenthcenturyreformsofagrarianlawswereundertakenfrom1807—50，inIrelandthetenantlawsfrom1870，whiletheAmericanhomesteadlawsandcertaincolonialimitationshadthesameaimsandeffects。
　　Isitnecessarytociteagaintheguildlaws，andtheregulationsofdomesticindustrieswhichforcenturiesprotected，elevated，andeducatedthesmallproducers？Orshallwerehearsethefactsofhowtheeducationofthemodernlaborerrestsuponhisrightofassociation，histradeunionsandboardsofarbitration，hissocieties，hisinsurancelaws，hislaborclearing—houses，aswellasuponthelawsprotectinglaborandthenewcollectivebargains，finallyuponhispoliticalorganization，whichhasbeenmadeapossibilitybymodernlegalchanges？Shallwerepeatwhatwesaidaboveaboutthegrowingrestrictionsofutterlyfreeeconomicaction，abouttheincreaseoflocalandstateofficials，aboutthealteredlegalorganizationofprivateenterprises？
　　Aswehavetriedtoshow，thegreatbusinessenterprise，intheformofamutualsociety，isbecomingmoreandmoreahalf—publicinstitution，controlledbyeconomicandcivicorgansandbypublicity。
　　Arenotthesealldeeplypenetratingchangesofoursocialinstitutions，allofwhichworktotheendofrestrictingbrutalclassconflicts，ofelevatingtheweak，oflimitingthedominanceofthestrong，ofpreventingthemiddleclassfromsinkingaseasilyasformerly？Neverinearliertimeshastheconditionofthelowerclassesbeenlookedintoasinthenineteenthcentury；neverhaspublicitysoconcerneditselfwiththeimprovementoftheconditionsofthelowerclassesasinthenineteenthcentury；neverweretheirpoliticalinfluenceandtheirpowerasgreat，althoughothererasinsmallrepublicshadmuchmoredemocraticconstitutions。
　　Itdoesnotcertainlyfollowofnecessityfromtheinstitutionsandspiritualmovementssopicturedthatall。theabusesofthepresentareovercome。Ineveryparticularfolkitalsodependsatthesametimeuponhowrapidlypopulationincreases，onabilitytoemploythegrowingpopulationathomeorincoloniesorbysupplyingforeignmarkets，ontheconstancyoftechnicalprogressandtheconsequentlighteningofthetaskofsupport。
　　Morethanall，too，itdependsuponwhetherthepowerofthesinglestateinthefamilyofstatesisontheincreaseordecrease，whetheritsconstitutionoperateswell，whetherthedomesticconflictsmakethecountrysoweakthatitisgoingbackwardorisevenbecomingthepreyofforeignconquerors，whethersocialconciliationissucceeding，whetheritsgreatstatesmenandpartyleadersareofthekindthatareabletocontrolthepassionsoftheday。
　　b）Thisleadsustothesecondofthequestionsproposed，viz。，tothequestionoftheexistingsocialtensionsandconflicts。Itisimpossibletogiveadecisiveanswer，eitherforasinglecountryorforourwholecivilizedworld。Stillwemaymentioncertainprobabilities，particularlywithreferencetothestruggleoftheproletariat，oftheSocialDemocracy，withtheupperclasses，especiallytheentrepreneurs，thenalsowiththeexistinggovernments，atleastastotheprobabilitiesindecadesimmediatelyahead。
　　ManypeopletodayregardtheexistenceoftheSocialDemocraticpartyasamisfortuneandanaberration。Theywouldregarditsvictoryasarelapseintobarbarism。Theycouldnothavethesocialdemocracy，withitspressandorganizationsuppressedtoosoon。Theywouldhaveuniversalsuffrageabolished，andtheywouldhaveagovernmentofsharpers，ofgreatcapitalists，andlandholders。Everybrutalrevolutionmighttoday，withusaselsewhere，producesuchareaction。Itmightalsoveryeasilydestroyournationalprosperity。Withoutprovocativerevolutionfrombelow，suchareactionwouldbeastupidandviciousexperimentinacountryofcompulsoryschoolattendance，andofuniversalmilitaryduty，inastatewhichfornearlyfortyyearshashaduniversalsuffrage。Theideathatallpoliticalandoccupationalorganizationoflaborersisaneviloverlooksthefactthattheonlywaytomakeclassesrisingfromalowerconditionreasonableistogivethemachancetohaveleadersoftheirownorganizations，whomtheylearntoobey。Theseleaderswilltreatwiththecivicpower，andlater，ifnotatonce，withtheotherclasses。Thereisonlyonechoice。
　　Wehaveeithertocrushthelaborersdowntothelevelofslaves，whichisimpossible，orwemustrecognizetheirequalrightsascitizens，wemustimprovetheirmentalandtechnicaltraining，wemustpermitthemtoorganize，wemustconcedetothemtheinfluencewhichtheyneedinordertoprotecttheirinterests。notforgetthatthisorganizationofthelaborersalonecouldsoemphaticallyremind’rulersandpropertyownersoftheirsocialdutiesthataserioussocialreformwouldbeundertaken。InthedayofthedancearoundtheGoldenCalf，thevoicesofscience，ofthechurch，ofhumanitywouldbemuchtooweak。Theself—consciousorganizationofthelaborclassinitselfistheexpressionofthehistoricalfactthathumanityhasreachedauniquelevelofcivilization。Onthislevelthelowerclassescannolongerbemadethepassivefootstoolofthehigher。
　　Theywillbeaself—conscious，activememberoftheentireorganization。
　　ThankGod，thevoicesofthereactionaryHotspursaregrowinglessfrequent。
　　Wehearlessoftentheindignantwordsofthepartyofrevolution。GreatstatesmenlikeBismarckandallcalmobservershavelongspokenofthegermoftruthinthesocialdemocraticdemands。Otherstates，especiallywithstrongerdemocraticfactorsintheirconstitutions，beganyearsagotomakecompromiseswiththelabororganizations，andhaveevenmaderepresentativesoflabormembersoftheadministration。
　　ApartofthosewhodemandthesameforGermanyareconfidentinprophesyingsuccessonthegroundofthechangewhichhasalreadytakenplacewithintheSocialDemocraticparty。SincetheissueoftheCommunistManifestoin1848boththeviewsoftheleadersandthepartyitselfhavechangedinthedirectionofmoderation。InGermanythepartyseemedtohaveadoptedtheMarxianprinciplesin1891，yetonlyashorttimeago（1895）Engelswithdrewthebloodyrevolutionaryidea。Itsscientificallytrainedleadersareinclinedmoreorlesstoabandonthetheoryofprogressivemisery，thesocialisticcrisistheory，thetheoryofincreasingaccumulationofcapitalinthehandsofafew。Marx’sthirdvolume（1894）hadthemosttodowithrevealingthefantasticelementinthesurplus—valuetheory。
　　Theenergeticstruggleforpoliticalpower，i。e。，inthefirstplaceformorevotesinparliamentandparish，isreallyinitselfanabandonmentoftheprogramofrevolution。Itisapassagetothelegalgroundofthemodernstate。
　　Buteverysuchreconstructingprocessmustbegradual。Atfirsttheoldextreme，passionateleadersstillcontrol，andtheytrytoinflamethemassesforrevolutionanddestructionoftheexistingsocialorder，althoughtheyseethatastreetrevoltwouldmerelypromotereaction，thatitwouldcausemiseryanddistressamongthelaborers，andalthoughtheyknowthatthelaborerswouldtodaybeincapableoftakingthecontrolofproductionintotheirownhands。Hereisthedangeroftheextremeradicalmovement。ItisaquestionwhetherthereinswouldnotquicklyslipfromthehandsofaBebelandaSingerandpassovertomoreradicalassociates。
　　Catastrophesandbloodyconflictsarethuscertainlynotoutofthequestion，especiallyif，atthedecisivehour，weakstatesmenshouldbeatthehead。
　　Butsuchcatastrophesmayalsobeavertedif，insteadofpursuingapolicyofviolentsuppression，theidealofsocialpeaceishonourlymaintained，andifthereisprogressivepromotionoftheeconomic，intellectual，andmoralelevationofthelaboringclass，withoutexternalinterventionwiththeSocialDemocraticparty，andifthusthewayismadeeasyforthereasonablepoliticiansinthepartytogetthevictoryoverthedemagogues。Undersuchcircumstancesblindhatredagainstalltheotherclassesandallcivicauthoritywillgraduallydisappear。AtthesametimethefalsepoliticalidealswhichstilldominatetheSocialDemocracywillbesofarmodifiedthatthelaborerswillbecapableofco—operatingwiththeotherclassesandwiththegovernment。
　　Thepolicyandthetactics，notofallthelaborers，butoftheextremeradicals，rest，ashasalwaysbeenthecasethroughouthistory，uponthepsychologicalfactthattheirthinkingandactionweregovernedmorebyemotionthanbyunderstanding，morebyrationalismthanbyrealknowledgeoftheworld。Alltheextremeradicalpartieshavecertaintractsofjuvenility（Rohmer—
　　Bluntschli）。Theyregardthemselvesasthe"good"people，alltheotherclassesandpartiesas"bad。"……Thelaborersarenotimmediatelycapableevenofunderstandingtheviewpointoftheupperclassesandofthegovernment。
　　Intheirzealforthevictoryoftheproletariattheycannotunderstandthattogaintheirendspermanentlyallpartiesandclassesmustconfinethemselvestocertainpracticablealms，whilealltheareaswithinthesphereofsocietymustbetreatedforthetimebeingas，sotospeak，asphereofthetruceofGod。Thehistoricaltruththateveryadvancestageofcivilizationrestsuponamixtureandareconciliationofheterogeneousinstitutions，e。g。，ofdemocraticandaristocratic，ofrepublicanandmonarchieal，isbyondtheirken。Theyexaggerateintocaricaturethequitelegitimatedemocratictendencyofthetime，andtheresultofsuchexaggeration，ifnotcounteracted，wouldberetrogressivebythousandsofyears。
　　ThedemocraticideaofequalityasproducedbyChristianity，asformulatedbytheenlightenmentoftheeighteenthcentury，causedmoststatestogiveuptheprivilegesofclassesandstrata，andtosubstituteequalityofrightsandofmarion，withsomesortofparticipationinself—governmentbythefoil。ThewideextensionofthesuffrageinEngland，France，Germany，andelsewheremayberegardedincertainparticularsasmistakenorpremature。
　　Inprinciplenooneacquaintedwithhistorycandiscreditthesechanges。
　　Theywerenecessaryandsalutarytoprotectusagainstconspiraciesandsurprises，togivetheentirefoilpoHricaleducation，andtoendancientclassabuses。Butthetolerabledegreeofthesetendenciesvaries。Theratiomustbeinproportiontotheculturalconditionofthelowerclasses，totheservicesoftheupperclasses，andtothevaryingneedsofastrongandfirmgovernment。
　　Inparticular，however，therearecertainextremedemocraticarrangementswhicharewholesomeinsmallparishesorcantons，butcanbeonlyharmfulingreatstates。Henceitwasnotillogicalforcertainradicals，suchasOwenandFourier，todemandthatallthegreatstatesshouldberesolvedintosmalllocalcommunities。Theymerelyforgotthatthedemandwouldamounttodestructionofallhighercultureandallnationalindependence。
　　Thosesocialistswhowanttoretainthegreatstatearemostlyinthedarkaboutthepreconditionsofitsexistence，abouttheinternationalstruggleswhichthreatenit，abouttheinternalstructureofforcewhichitpresupposes，theythinkitiscompatiblewithaconstitutionsuitableforatradeunionof50to100members。Directlegislationbythewholefolk（obligatoryreferendum），theimperativemandateincaseofmembersofthelowerhouse，whichcompelsthemtovote，notinaccordancewiththeirinsideknowledgeandconviction，butastheirconstituentsdirect，theuni—cameralsystem，annualelections，theone—man—one—votesysteminallelectionsthedecisionaboutpeaceandwarbythewholefolk—thereareextremedemocraticdemands，whichrestupontheideaofpopular，sovereignty，andwhichwouldtransfergreatdealsionsfromgovernmenttofolk。Theystartfromthefalseconceptionthatthelowerclassesareconspicuousforwisdomandvirtue，thattheaggregateoftheirvoteswouldrepresentalltheinsightthereis。Thisentirelyignoresthefactthatalldecisionsaretheresultantmoreofemotionthanofintelligence，thatthearithmeticalsummationsofallthevotesofasocietyconsistingofdifferentculturalstrataalwaysreducestheresulttothevulgarneeds，judgments，andideaswhicharecommontoall，thateveninthecaseofthepeopleofcultureandcharacter，understandingdeclinesinthedegreewhichtheygivetheirvotesundertheexcitementofmassmeetings。Itisforthisreasonthatforhundredsofyearsinallthegreatcivilizedstatesthefinaldecisionsuponimportantmattershavebeenintrustedtoasinglemanortoasmallbodyofmen，ortosenatesandlowerhousesoffrom200to600members。Theancientrepublicsperishedintheattemptatgovernmentbythewholefolk。Thegreatestpoliticalprogressmeanwhile——governmentbymeansofministersandparliaments——wouldbenullifiedbytheabovementioneddemocraticdemands。
　　Thelikeistrueofthedemandforannualelectionsofallcivilofficialsandjudgesandforabolitionofstandingarmies……Thereasonablesocialismandradicalismofmostrecenttimeslike，forinstance，thatoftheEnglishFabians，hasaccordinglyalreadypronouncedallthesedemocraticdemandsarchaicandfallacious。ForfouryearstheEnglishtradeunionshavemoreandmoregivenovertheconductoftheiraffairstoalaboraristocracyandtoabodyoflaborofficials。ThisispracticallythecasemoreandmoreinGermany。ThepoweroftheleadersintheSocialDemocracyisgrowingdaily。Nowhereisfaithinauthoritymorenecessarythanhere。Asaint—worshiptowarddepartedleadersisdeveloping，butinallthisalongprocessasunderway，aprocessofpoliticaleducation。Thisprocessshouldpreparethelaborersasfaraspossibleforself—government。Theyshouldnotbehinderedinthisprocessbyviciousexclusionfrompoliticalrightsandresponsibilities。
　　Inthemodernstatetheissueiswhetherthelaborershallbetreatedineveryrespectjustly，fairly，objectively；whetherheshallbeexpectedtosacrificehisbelief，tobeatraitortohisleaders，toresignhispresentrights。Ontheotherhanditisinordertodayfortheupperclasses，whatevertheprovocation，whatevertheparticularexcesseswhichthelowerclassesmaycommit，toremaincall，insteadofyieldingeithertoanxietyortopassion。Morethanallitisinpointthatallofficialsandcourtsshouldbewarnedagainstpartisanshipinfavorofthecapitalisticclasses。
　　Agenerationofadministrationinthisspiritwouldcertainlygofartowardsolvingthesocialquestion。
　　Thenofcourseinthegreatquestionsofpoliticalconstitutionsandofeconomicorganizationtheissueiswhetherthecorrectmeanmaybeobservedbetweentheconcessionswhicharemadetothelaborersandtheenergeticdefenseofexistingproperty，ofthepresentcivicconstitution，oftheinfluencewhichthehighercultureandgreatcivictraditionsmusthave，oftheorganizationofpower，onwhichtheGermanEmpirerests。Ifthismeanispossible，thegoalofconciliationmaybereachedmoreeasilythaninanyotherstate，withoutrevolutionbutalongthepathofgradual，moderatereform。InwesternEuropeandintheUnitedStatesthecivilgovernmenthaslesspower，oratanyrateithassufficientpoweronlybyapproachtoadictatorshipofapopularstatesman，apresident……
　　WithustheSocialDemocratsthemselvescouldruleonlythroughadictator……Uponthetraditionofthemonarchyrestallourgreatinstitutions——constitution，army，civilservice，protectionofthepeasants，etc。，——andifinrecenttimesithasoftenlookedasthoughthemonarchicalandbureaucratictraditionshadsetthemselvesagainstsocialreform，asthoughtheywerepermanentlycommittedtoanalliancewithgreatlandholdersandcapitalists，thiswasratheraconsequenceofaconstitutionalconsiderationofthemajorityintheReichstagandLandtagthandeepconviction，anditwasalsoaconsequenceofthefactthatuptothepresenttimetheSocialDemocracycompletelyneglectedthespecificallynationaldemandswhichwereproposedintheinterestofthepowerofthestateandofthenation。
　　Allthismaybemodified。ItdoesnotexcludeanalliancebetweenmonarchyandthelaborersinGermany。EventodaywemaysaythatthemonarchywithitsorgansandthelaborworldpresentthemostvitalpoliticalforcesinGermany。Incomparisonwiththemtheoldpartiesandtheotherclasseshavethemajority，tobesure，buttheyalsoconstitutethesatedandpassiveelementsofpubliclife。Whoeverbelievesthatthestrongestpowersinastateassertthemselveswillnotmakeamistakeinthisprophecy：AsinthedaysoftheStein—Hardenbergleadership，andin1848—501859—62，1867—75，liberalismcombinedforreformswiththeGermanbureaucraticandmilitarymonarchy，thelikewilloccurwithsocialism。IntheGermanfolk—thriftofthefuturetherewouldthenoccurfurtherreconstructionsinthespiritofsocialreformintheinterestofthelaborers……
　　Thiswouldmerelyamounttoafulfillentofthemostgeneralhistoricallaw，viz。，thatgreatopposingpoliticalenergieswithinthesamestatealwaysatlastfindthepointofunionandofco—operation。ThiswouldsubstantiatearemarkofKaiserWilhelmIIatthebeginningofhisreign，thatthePrussianstate，becauseithasthemostfixedmonarchicalconstitutionandadministrationisalsocapableofmostboldlyundertakingsocialreform。
　　NOTES：
　　1。TheEuropeanwarforcesthesociologisttoreviewsomeofhisgeneralizations，andtoconsidertowhatextentmajorandminorincidentsofthestruggleconfirmorimpeachpreviousconclusions。
　　ItisinorderthereforetopublishthistranslationofoneofSchmoller’smostcharacteristiccontributionstogeneralsociologicaltheory。ThepassageoccursinhisGrundrissderallgemeinenVolkswirtschaftslehre（6thed。，1904），II，542ff。Foranumberofyearsthetranslatorhasfoundthepassageaconvenientbasisfordiscussionoftheconflictcategorywithgraduatestudents。Itisthemostgeneralportionofthesubdivisioninwhichitoccurs，entitled"RelationsbetweenStateandSocialClassesinGeneral。"