"Aswecannotnowlookupontheprimitiveworldasrepresentingawhollydifferentconditionofthings，fromwhichnotransitionexiststotheorganiclifeofthepresenttime，thedesignationof’fossil’，asappliedto’abone’，hasnolongerthesenseitconveyedinthetimeofCuvier。Sufficientgroundsexistfortheassumptionthatmancoexistedwiththeanimalsfoundinthe’diluvium’；andmanyabarbarousracemay，beforeallhistoricaltime，havedisappeared，togetherwiththeanimalsoftheancientworld，whilsttheraceswhoseorganizationisimprovedhavecontinuedthegenus。Theboneswhichformthesubjectofthispaperpresentcharacterswhich，althoughnotdecisiveasregardsageologicalepoch，are，nevertheless，suchasindicateaveryhighantiquity。Itmayalsoberemarkedthat，commonasistheoccurrenceofdiluvialanimalbonesinthemuddydepositsofcaverns，suchremainshavenothithertobeenmetwithinthecavesoftheNeanderthal；andthatthebones，whichwerecoveredbyadepositofmudnotmorethanfourorfivefeetthick，andwithoutanyprotectivecoveringofstalagmite，haveretainedthegreatestpartoftheirorganicsubstance。
"Thesecircumstancesmightbeadducedagainsttheprobabilityofageologicalantiquity。Norshouldwebejustifiedinregardingthecranialconformationasperhapsrepresentingthemostsavageprimitivetypeofthehumanrace，sincecraniaexistamonglivingsavages，which，thoughnotexhibiting，sucharemarkableconformationoftheforehead，whichgivestheskullsomewhattheaspectofthatofthelargeapes，stillinotherrespects，asforinstanceinthegreaterdepthofthetemporalfossae，thecrest—like，prominenttemporalridges，andagenerallylesscapaciouscranialcavity，exhibitanequallylowstageofdevelopment。Thereisnoreasonforsupposingthatthedeepfrontalhollowisduetoanyartificialflattening，suchasispractisedinvariousmodesbybarbarousnationsintheOldandNewWorld。Theskullisquitesymmetrical，andshowsnoindicationofcounter—pressureattheocciput，whilst，accordingtoMorton，intheFlat—headsoftheColumbia，thefrontalandparietalbonesarealwaysunsymmetrical。Itsconformationexhibitsthesparingdevelopmentoftheanteriorpartoftheheadwhichhasbeensooftenobservedinveryancientcrania，andaffordsoneofthemoststrikingproofsoftheinfluenceofcultureandcivilizationontheformofthehumanskull。"
Inasubsequentpassage，Dr。Schaaffhausenremarks：
"ThereisnoreasonwhateverforregardingtheunusualdevelopmentofthefrontalsinusesintheremarkableskullfromtheNeanderthalasanindividualorpathologicaldeformity；itisunquestionablyatypicalrace—character，andisphysiologicallyconnectedwiththeuncommonthicknessoftheotherbonesoftheskeleton，whichexceedsbyaboutone—halftheusualproportions。Thisexpansionofthefrontalsinuses，whichareappendagesoftheair—passages，alsoindicatesanunusualforceandpowerofenduranceinthemovementsofthebody，asmaybeconcludedfromthesizeofalltheridgesandprocessesfortheattachmentofthemusclesorbones。Thatthisconclusionmaybedrawnfromtheexistenceoflargefrontalsinuses，andaprominenceofthelowerfrontalregion，isconfirmedinmanywaysbyotherobservations。
Bythesamecharacters，accordingtoPallas，thewildhorseisdistinguishedfromthedomesticated，and，accordingtoCuvier，thefossilcave—bearfromeveryrecentspeciesofbear，whilst，accordingtoRoulin，thepig，whichhasbecomewildinAmerica，andregainedaresemblancetothewildboar，isthusdistinguishedfromthesameanimalinthedomesticatedstate，asisthechamoisfromthegoat；and，lastly，thebull—dog，whichischaracterisedbyitslargebonesandstrongly—developedmusclesfromeveryotherkindofdog。Theestimationofthefacialangle，thedeterminationofwhich，accordingtoProfessorOwen，isalsodifficultinthegreatapes，owingtotheveryprominentsupra—orbitalridges，inthepresentcaseisrenderedstillmoredifficultfromtheabsencebothoftheauditoryopeningandofthenasalspine。Butiftheproperhorizontalpositionoftheskullbetakenfromtheremainingportionsoftheorbitalplates，andtheascendinglinemadetotouchthesurfaceofthefrontalbonebehindtheprominentsupra—orbitalridges，thefacialangleisnotfoundtoexceed56degrees。*Unfortunately，noportionsofthefacialbones，whoseconformationissodecisiveasregardstheformandexpressionofthehead，havebeenpreserved。Thecranialcapacity，comparedwiththeuncommonstrengthofthecorporealframe，wouldseemtoindicateasmallcerebraldevelopment。Theskull，asitis，holdsabout31ouncesofmillet—seed；andas，fromtheproportionatesizeofthewantingbones，thewholecranialcavityshouldhaveabout6ouncesmoreadded，thecontents，wereitperfect，maybetakenat37ounces。Tiedemannassigns，asthecranialcontentsintheNegro，40，38，and35ounces。
Thecraniumholdsrathermorethan36ouncesofwater，whichcorrespondstoacapacityof1033。24cubiccentimetres。HuschkeestimatesthecranialcontentsofaNegressat1127cubiccentimetres；
ofanoldNegroat1146cubiccentimetres。ThecapacityoftheMalayskulls，estimatedbywater，equalled36，33ounces，whilstinthediminutiveHindoositfallstoaslittleas27ounces。"
[footnote]*Estimatingthefacialangleinthewaysuggested，onthecastIshouldplaceitat64degreesto67degrees。——G。B。
AftercomparingtheNeanderthalcraniumwithmanyothers，ancientandmodern，ProfessorSchaaffhausenconcludesthus：——
"ButthehumanbonesandcraniumfromtheNeanderthalexceedalltherestinthosepeculiaritiesofconformationwhichleadtotheconclusionoftheirbelongingtoabarbarousandsavagerace。Whetherthecaverninwhichtheywerefound，unaccompaniedwithanytraceofhumanart，weretheplaceoftheirinterment，orwhether，likethebonesofextinctanimalselsewhere，theyhadbeenwashedintoit，theymaystillberegardedasthemostancientmemorialoftheearlyinhabitantsofEurope。"
Mr。Busk，thetranslatorofDr。Schaaffhausen’spaper，hasenabledustoformaveryvividconceptionofthedegradedcharacteroftheNeanderthalskull，byplacingsidebysidewithitsoutline，thatoftheskullofaChimpanzee，drawntothesameabsolutesize。
SometimeafterthepublicationofthetranslationofProfessorSchaaffhausen’sMemoir，IwasledtostudythecastoftheNeanderthalcraniumwithmoreattentionthanIhadpreviouslybestoweduponit，inconsequenceofwishingtosupplySirCharlesLyellwithadiagram，exhibitingthespecialpeculiaritiesofthisskull，ascomparedwithotherhumanskulls。Inordertodothisitwasnecessarytoidentify，withprecision，thosepointsintheskullscomparedwhichcorrespondedanatomically。Ofthesepoints，theglabellawasobviousenough；butwhenIhaddistinguishedanother，definedbytheoccipitalprotuberanceandsuperiorsemicircularline，andhadplacedtheoutlineoftheNeanderthalskullagainstthatoftheEngisskull，insuchapositionthattheglabellaandoccipitalprotuberanceofbothwereintersectedbythesamestraightline，thedifferencewassovastandtheflatteningoftheNeanderthalskullsoprodigious（compareFigs。22and24，A。），thatIatfirstimaginedImusthavefallenintosomeerror。AndIwasthemoreinclinedtosuspectthis，as，inordinaryhumanskulls，theoccipitalprotuberanceandsuperiorsemicircularcurvedlineontheexterioroftheocciputcorrespondprettycloselywiththe’lateralsinuses’andthelineofattachmentofthetentoriuminternally。Butonthetentoriumrests，asIhavesaidintheprecedingEssay，theposteriorlobeofthebrain；andhence，theoccipitalprotuberance，andthecurvedlineinquestion，indicate，approximately，thelowerlimitsofthatlobe。Wasitpossibleforahumanbeingtohavethebrainthusflattenedanddepressed；or，ontheotherhand，hadthemuscularridgesshiftedtheirposition？Inordertosolvethesedoubts，andtodecidethequestionwhetherthegreatsupraciliaryprojectionsdid，ordidnot，arisefromthedevelopmentofthefrontalsinuses，IrequestedSirCharlesLyelltobesogoodastoobtainformefromDr。Fuhlrott，thepossessoroftheskull，answerstocertainqueries，andifpossibleacast，oratanyratedrawings，orphotographs，oftheinterioroftheskull。
FIG。24。——TheskullfromtheNeanderthalcavern。A。side，B。front，andC。topview。One—thirdthenaturalsize，byMr。Busk：thedetailsfromthecastandfromDr。Fuhlrott’sphotographs。’a’glabella；’b’
occipitalprotuberance；’d’lambdoidalsuture。
Dr。FuhlrottrepliedwithacourtesyandreadinessforwhichIaminfinitelyindebtedtohim，tomyinquiries，andfurthermoresentthreeexcellentphotographs。Oneofthesegivesasideviewoftheskull，andfromitFig。24，A。hasbeenshaded。Thesecond（Fig。25，A。）
exhibitsthewideopeningsofthefrontalsinusesupontheinferiorsurfaceofthefrontalpartoftheskull，intowhich，Dr。Fuhlrottwrites，"aprobemaybeintroducedtothedepthofaninch，"anddemonstratesthegreatextensionofthethickenedsupraciliaryridgesbeyondthecerebralcavity。Thethird，lastly（Fig。25，B。）exhibitstheedgeandtheinterioroftheposterior，oroccipital，partoftheskull，andshowsveryclearlythetwodepressionsforthelateralsinuses，sweepinginwardstowardsthemiddlelineoftheroofoftheskull，toformthelongitudinalsinus。Itwasclear，therefore，thatI
hadnoterredinmyinterpretation，andthattheposteriorlobeofthebrainoftheNeanderthalmanmusthavebeenasmuchflattenedasI
suspectedittobe。
Intruth，theNeanderthalcraniumhasmostextraordinarycharacters。Ithasanextremelengthof8inches，whileitsbreadthisonly5。75
inches，or，inotherwords，itslengthistoitsbreadthas100：72。Itisexceedinglydepressed，measuringonlyabout3。4inchesfromtheglabello—occipitallinetothevertex。Thelongitudinalarc，measuredinthesamewayasintheEngisskull，is12inches；thetransversearccannotbeexactlyascertained，inconsequenceoftheabsenceofthetemporalbones，butwasprobablyaboutthesame，andcertainlyexceeded101/4inches。Thehorizontalcircumferenceis23inches。Butthisgreatcircumferenceariseslargelyfromthevastdevelopmentofthesupraciliaryridges，thoughtheperimeterofthebraincaseitselfisnotsmall。Thelargesupraciliaryridgesgivetheforeheadafarmoreretreatingappearancethanitsinternalcontourwouldbearout。
Toananatomicaleyetheposteriorpartoftheskullisevenmorestrikingthantheanterior。Theoccipitalprotuberanceoccupiestheextremeposteriorendoftheskull，whentheglabello—occipitallineismadehorizontal，andsofarfromanypartoftheoccipitalregionextendingbeyondit，thisregionoftheskullslopesobliquelyupwardandforward，sothatthelambdoidalsutureissituatedwellupontheuppersurfaceofthecranium。Atthesametime，notwithstandingthegreatlengthoftheskull，thesagittalsutureisremarkablyshort（4
1/2inches），andthesquamosalsutureisverystraight。
FIG。25。——DrawingsfromDr。Fuhlrott’sphotographsofpartsoftheinterioroftheNeanderthalcranium。A。viewoftheunderandinnersurfaceofthefrontalregion，showingtheinferioraperturesofthefrontalsinuses（’a’）。B。correspondingviewoftheoccipitalregionoftheskull，showingtheimpressionsofthelateralsinuses（’aa’）。
InreplytomyquestionsDr。Fuhlrottwritesthattheoccipitalbone"isinastateofperfectpreservationasfarastheuppersemicircularline，whichisaverystrongridge，linearatitsextremities，butenlargingtowardsthemiddle，whereitformstworidges（bourrelets），unitedbyalinearcontinuation，whichisslightlydepressedinthemiddle。"
"Belowtheleftridgetheboneexhibitsanobliquelyinclinedsurface，sixlines（French）long，andtwelvelineswide。"
Thislastmustbethesurface，thecontourofwhichisshowninFig。24，A。，below’b’。Itisparticularlyinteresting，asitsuggeststhat，notwithstandingtheflattenedconditionoftheocciput，theposteriorcerebrallobesmusthaveprojectedconsiderablybeyondthecerebellum，andasitconstitutesoneamongseveralpointsofsimilaritybetweentheNeanderthalcraniumandcertainAustralianskulls。
Sucharethetwobestknownformsofhumancranium，whichhavebeenfoundinwhatmaybefairlytermedafossilstate。Caneitherbeshowntofillupordiminish，toanyappreciableextent，thestructuralintervalwhichexistsbetweenManandtheman—likeapes？Or，ontheotherhand，doesneitherdepartmorewidelyfromtheaveragestructureofthehumancranium，thannormallyformedskullsofmenareknowntodoatthepresentday？
Itisimpossibletoformanyopiniononthesequestions，withoutsomepreliminaryacquaintancewiththerangeofvariationexhibitedbyhumanstructureingeneral——asubjectwhichhasbeenbutimperfectlystudied，whileevenofwhatisknown，mylimitswillnecessarilyallowmetogiveonlyaveryimperfectsketch。
Thestudentofanatomyisperfectlywellawarethatthereisnotasingleorganofthehumanbodythestructureofwhichdoesnotvary，toagreaterorlessextent，indifferentindividuals。Theskeletonvariesintheproportions，andeventoacertainextentintheconnexions，ofitsconstituentbones。Themuscleswhichmovethebonesvarylargelyintheirattachments。Thevarietiesinthemodeofdistributionofthearteriesarecarefullyclassified，onaccountofthepracticalimportanceofaknowledgeoftheirshiftingstothesurgeon。Thecharactersofthebrainvaryimmensely，nothingbeinglessconstantthantheformandsizeofthecerebralhemispheres，andtherichnessoftheconvolutionsupontheirsurface，whilethemostchangeablestructuresofallinthehumanbrain，areexactlythoseonwhichtheunwiseattempthasbeenmadetobasethedistinctivecharactersofhumanity，viz。theposteriorcornuofthelateralventricle，thehippocampusminor，andthedegreeofprojectionoftheposteriorlobebeyondthecerebellum。Finally，asalltheworldknows，thehairandskinofhumanbeingsmaypresentthemostextraordinarydiversitiesincolourandintexture。
Sofarasourpresentknowledgegoes，themajorityofthestructuralvarietiestowhichallusionisheremade，areindividual。Theape—likearrangementofcertainmuscleswhichisoccasionallymetwith*inthewhiteracesofmankind，isnotknowntobemorecommonamongNegroesorAustralians：norbecausethebrainoftheHottentotVenuswasfoundtobesmoother，tohaveitsconvolutionsmoresymmetricallydisposed，andtobe，sofar，moreape—likethanthatofordinaryEuropeans，arewejustifiedinconcludingalikeconditionofthebraintoprevailuniversallyamongthelowerracesofmankind，howeverprobablethatconclusionmaybe。
[footnote]*SeeanexcellentEssaybyMr。ChurchontheMyologyoftheOrang，inthe’NaturalHistoryReview’，for1861。
Weare，infact，sadlywantingininformationrespectingthedispositionofthesoftanddestructibleorgansofeveryRaceofMankindbutourown；andevenoftheskeleton，ourMuseumsarelamentablydeficientineverypartbutthecranium。Skullsenoughthereare，andsincethetimewhenBlumenbachandCamperfirstcalledattentiontothemarkedandsingulardifferenceswhichtheyexhibit，skullcollectingandskullmeasuringhasbeenazealouslypursuedbranchofNaturalHistory，andtheresultsobtainedhavebeenarrangedandclassifiedbyvariouswriters，amongwhomthelateactiveandableRetziusmustalwaysbethefirstnamed。
Humanskullshavebeenfoundtodifferfromoneanother，notmerelyintheirabsolutesizeandintheabsolutecapacityofthebraincase，butintheproportionswhichthediametersofthelatterbeartooneanother；intherelativesizeofthebonesoftheface（andmoreparticularlyofthejawsandteeth）ascomparedwiththoseoftheskull；inthedegreetowhichtheupperjaw（whichisofcoursefollowedbythelower）isthrownbackwardsanddownwardsunderthefore—partofthebraincase，orforwardsandupwardinfrontofandbeyondit。Theydifferfurtherintherelationsofthetransversediameteroftheface，takenthroughthecheekbones，tothetransversediameteroftheskull；inthemoreroundedormoregable—likeformoftheroofoftheskull，andinthedegreetowhichthehinderpartoftheskullisflattenedorprojectsbeyondtheridge，intoandbelowwhich，themusclesoftheneckareinserted。
Insomeskullsthebraincasemaybesaidtobe’round，’theextremelengthnotexceedingtheextremebreadthbyagreaterproportionthan100to80，whilethedifferencemaybemuchless。*MenpossessingsuchskullsweretermedbyRetzius’brachycephalic，’andtheskullofaCalmuck，ofwhichafrontandsideview（reducedoutlinecopiesofwhicharegiveninFigure26）aredepictedbyVonBaerinhisexcellent，"Craniaselecta，"affordsaveryadmirableexampleofthatkindofskull。Otherskulls，suchasthatofaNegrocopiedinFig。27fromMr。Busk’s’Craniatypica，’haveaverydifferent，greatlyelongatedform，andmaybetermed’oblong。’Inthisskulltheextremelengthistotheextremebreadthas100tonotmorethan67，andthetransversediameterofthehumanskullmayfallbeloweventhisproportion。
PeoplehavingsuchskullswerecalledbyRetzius’dolichocephalic。’
[footnote]*Innonormalhumanskulldoesthebreadthofthebrain—caseexceeditslength。
Themostcursoryglanceatthesideviewsofthesetwoskullswillsufficetoprovethattheydiffer，inanotherrespect，toaverystrikingextent。TheprofileofthefaceoftheCalmuckisalmostvertical，thefacialbonesbeingthrowndownwardsandundertheforepartoftheskull。TheprofileofthefaceoftheNegro，ontheotherhand，issingularlyinclined，thefrontpartofthejawsprojectingfarforwardbeyondtheleveloftheforepartoftheskull。Intheformercasetheskullissaidtobe’orthognathous’orstraight—jawed；inthelatter，itiscalled’prognathous，’atermwhichhasbeenrendered，withmoreforcethanelegance，bytheSaxonequivalent，——’snouty。’
Variousmethodshavebeendevisedinordertoexpresswithsomeaccuracythedegreeofprognathismororthognathismofanygivenskull；mostofthesemethodsbeingessentiallymodificationsofthatdevisedbyPeterCamper，inordertoattainwhathecalledthe’facialangle。’
Butalittleconsiderationwillshowthatany’facialangle’thathasbeendevised，canbecompetenttoexpressthestructuralmodificationsinvolvedinprognathismandorthognathism，onlyinaroughandgeneralsortofway。Forthelines，theintersectionofwhichformsthefacialangle，aredrawnthroughpointsoftheskull，thepositionofeachofwhichismodifiedbyanumberofcircumstances，sothattheangleobtainedisacomplexresultantofallthesecircumstances，andisnottheexpressionofanyonedefiniteorganicrelationofthepartsoftheskull。
FIG。26。——SideandfrontviewsoftheroundandorthognathousskullofaCalmuck，afterVonBaer。One—thirdthenaturalsize。
Ihavearrivedattheconvictionthatnocomparisonofcraniaisworthverymuch，thatisnotfoundedupontheestablishmentofarelativelyfixedbaseline，towhichthemeasurements，inallcases，mustbereferred。NordoIthinkitisaverydifficultmattertodecidewhatthatbaselineshouldbe。Thepartsoftheskull，likethoseoftherestoftheanimalframework，aredevelopedinsuccessionthebaseoftheskullisformedbeforeitssidesandroof；itisconvertedintocartilageearlierandmorecompletelythanthesidesandroof：andthecartilaginousbaseossifies，andbecomessolderedintoonepiecelongbeforetheroof。Iconceivethenthatthebaseoftheskullmaybedemonstrateddevelopmentallytobeitsrelativelyfixedpart，theroofandsidesbeingrelativelymoveable。
Fig。27。——OblongandprognathousskullofaNegro；sideandfrontviews。
One—thirdofthenaturalsize。
Thesametruthisexemplifiedbythestudyofthemodificationswhichtheskullundergoesinascendingfromtheloweranimalsuptoman。
FIG。28。——LongitudinalandverticalsectionsoftheskullsofaBeaver（’CastorCanadensis’），aLemur（’L。Catia’），andaBaboon（’CynocephalusPapio’），’ab’，thebasicranialaxis；’bc’，theoccipitalplane；’iT’，thetentorialplane；’ad’，theolfactoryplane；
’fe’，thebasifacialaxis；’cba’，occipitalangle；’Tia’，tentorialangle；’dab’，olfactoryangle；’efb’，cranio—facialangle；
’gh’，extremelengthofthecavitywhichlodgesthecerebralhemispheresor’cerebrallength。’Thelengthofthebasicranialaxisastothislength，or，inotherwords，theproportionallengthoftheline’gh’tothatof’ab’takenas100，inthethreeskulls，isasfollows：——Beaver70to100；Lemur119to100；Baboon144to100。InanadultmaleGorillathecerebrallengthisas170tothebasicranialaxistakenas100，intheNegro（Fig。29）as236to100。IntheConstantinopleskull（Fig。29）as266to100。ThecranialdifferencebetweenthehighestApe’sskullandthelowestMan’sisthereforeverystrikinglybroughtoutbythesemeasurements。InthediagramoftheBaboon’sskullthedottedlines’d1d2’，etc。，givetheanglesoftheLemur’sandBeaver’sskull，aslaiddownuponthebasicranialaxisoftheBaboon。Theline’ab’hasthesamelengthineachdiagram。
InsuchamammalasaBeaver（Fig。28），aline（’ab’。）drawnthroughthebones，termedbasioccipital，basisphenoid，andpresphenoid，isverylonginproportiontotheextremelengthofthecavitywhichcontainsthecerebralhemispheres（’gh’。）。Theplaneoftheoccipitalforamen（’bc’。）formsaslightlyacuteanglewiththis’basicranialaxis，’
whiletheplaneofthetentorium（’iT’。）isinclinedatrathermorethan90degreestothe’basicranialaxis’；andsoistheplaneoftheperforatedplate（’ad’。），bywhichthefilamentsoftheolfactorynerveleavetheskull。Again，alinedrawnthroughtheaxisoftheface，betweenthebonescalledethmoidandvomer——the"basifacialaxis"（’fe’。）formsanexceedinglyobtuseangle，where，whenproduced，itcutsthe’basicranialaxis。’
Iftheanglemadebytheline’bc’。with’ab’。，becalledthe’occipitalangle，’andtheanglemadebytheline’ad’。with’ab’。betermedthe’olfactoryangle，’andthatmadeby’iT’。with’ab’。the’tentorialangle，’thenallthese，inthemammalinquestion，arenearlyrightangles，varyingbetween80degreesand110degrees。theangle’efb’。，orthatmadebythecranialwiththefacialaxis，andwhichmaybetermedthe’cranio—facialangle，’isextremelyobtuse，amounting，inthecaseoftheBeaver，toatleast150degrees。
Butifaseriesofsectionsofmammalianskulls，intermediatebetweenaRodentandaMan（Fig。28），beexamined，itwillbefoundthatinthehighercraniathebasicranialaxisbecomesshorterrelativelytothecerebrallength；thatthe’olfactoryangle’and’occipitalangle’
becomemoreobtuse；andthatthe’cranio—facialangle’becomesmoreacutebythebendingdown，asitwere，ofthefacialaxisuponthecranialaxis。Atthesametime，theroofofthecraniumbecomesmoreandmorearched，toallowoftheincreasingheightofthecerebralhemispheres，whichiseminentlycharacteristicofman，aswellasofthatbackwardextension，beyondthecerebellum，whichreachesitsmaximumintheSouthAmericaMonkeys。Sothat，atlast，inthehumanskull（Fig。29），thecerebrallengthisbetweentwiceandthriceasgreatasthelengthofthebasicranialaxis；theolfactoryplaneis20
degreesor30degreesonthe’under’sideofthataxis；theoccipitalangle，insteadofbeinglessthan90degrees，isasmuchas150degreesor160degrees；thecranio—facialanglemaybe90degreesorless，andtheverticalheightoftheskullmayhavealargeproportiontoitslength。
Itwillbeobvious，fromaninspectionofthediagrams，thatthebasicranialaxisis，intheascendingseriesofMammalia，arelativelyfixedline，onwhichthebonesofthesidesandroofofthecranialcavity，andoftheface，maybesaidtorevolvedownwardsandforwardsorbackwards，accordingtotheirposition。Thearcdescribedbyanyoneboneorplane，however，isnotbyanymeansalwaysinproportiontothearcdescribedbyanother。
Nowcomestheimportantquestion，canwediscern，betweenthelowestandthehighestformsofthehumancraniumanythinganswering，inhoweverslightadegree，tothisrevolutionofthesideandroofbonesoftheskulluponthebasicranialaxisobserveduponsogreatascaleinthemammalianseries？Numerousobservationsleadmetobelievethatwemustanswerthisquestionintheaffirmative。
ThediagramsinFigure29arereducedfromverycarefullymadediagramsofsectionsoffourskulls，tworoundandorthognathous，twolongandprognathous，takenlongitudinallyandvertically，throughthemiddle。
Thesectionaldiagramshavethenbeensuperimposed，insuchamanner，thatthebasalaxesoftheskullscoincidebytheiranteriorends，andintheirdirection。Thedeviationsoftherestofthecontours（whichrepresenttheinterioroftheskullsonly）showthedifferencesoftheskullsfromoneanother，whentheseaxesareregardedasrelativelyfixedlines。
ThedarkcontoursarethoseofanAustralianandofaNegroskull：thelightcontoursarethoseofaTartarskull，intheMuseumoftheRoyalCollegeofSurgeons；andofawelldevelopedroundskullfromacemeteryinConstantinople，ofuncertainrace，inmyownpossession。
Itappears，atonce，fromtheseviews，thattheprognathousskulls，sofarastheirjawsareconcerned，doreallydifferfromtheorthognathousinmuchthesamewayas，thoughtoafarlessdegreethan，theskullsofthelowermammalsdifferfromthoseofMan。
Furthermore，theplaneoftheoccipitalforamen（’bc’）formsasomewhatsmalleranglewiththeaxisintheseparticularprognathousskullsthanintheorthognathous；andthelikemaybeslightlytrueoftheperforatedplateoftheethmoid——thoughthispointisnotsoclear。Butitissingulartoremarkthat，inanotherrespect，theprognathousskullsarelessape—likethantheorthognathous，thecerebralcavityprojectingdecidedlymorebeyondtheanteriorendoftheaxisintheprognathous，thanintheorthognathous，skulls。
Itwillbeobservedthatthesediagramsrevealanimmenserangeofvariationinthecapacityandrelativeproportiontothecranialaxis，ofthedifferentregionsofthecavitywhichcontainsthebrain，inthedifferentskulls。Noristhedifferenceintheextenttowhichthecerebraloverlapsthecerebellarcavitylesssingular。Aroundskull（Fig。29，’Const’。）mayhaveagreaterposteriorcerebralprojectionthanalongone（Fig。29，’Negro’）。
Untilhumancraniahavebeenlargelyworkedoutinamannersimilartothatheresuggested——untilitshallbeanopprobriumtoanethnologicalcollectiontopossessasingleskullwhichisnotbisectedlongitudinally——untiltheanglesandmeasurementsherementioned，togetherwithanumberofothersofwhichIcannotspeakinthisplace，aredetermined，andtabulatedwithreferencetothebasicranialaxisasunity，forlargenumbersofskullsofthedifferentracesofMankind，I
donotthinkweshallhaveanyverysafebasisforthatethnologicalcraniologywhichaspirestogivetheanatomicalcharactersofthecraniaofthedifferentRacesofMankind。
Atpresent，Ibelievethatthegeneraloutlinesofwhatmaybesafelysaiduponthatsubjectmaybesummedupinaveryfewwords。DrawalineonaglobefromtheGoldCoastinWesternAfricatothesteppesofTartary。Atthesouthernandwesternendofthatlinetherelivethemostdolichocephalic，prognathous，curly—haired，dark—skinnedofmen——thetrueNegroes。Atthenorthernandeasternendofthesamelinetherelivethemostbrachycephalic，orthognathous，straight—haired，yellow—skinnedofmen——theTartarsandCalmucks。Thetwoendsofthisimaginarylineareindeed，sotospeak，ethnologicalantipodes。Alinedrawnatrightangles，ornearlyso，tothispolarlinethroughEuropeandSouthernAsiatoHindostan，wouldgiveusasortofequator，aroundwhichround—headed，oval—headed，andoblong—headed，prognathousandorthognathous，fairanddarkraces——butnonepossessingtheexcessivelymarkedcharactersofCalmuckorNegro——groupthemselves。
FIG。29。——Sectionsoforthognathous（lightcontour）andprognathous（darkcontour）skulls，one—thirdofthenaturalsize。’ab’，Basicranialaxis；’bc，b1c1’，planeoftheoccipitalforamen；’dd1’，hinderendofthepalatinebone；’ee1’，frontendoftheupperjaw；’TT1’，insertionofthetentorium。
Itisworthyofnoticethattheregionsoftheantipodalracesareantipodalinclimate，thegreatestcontrasttheworldaffords，perhaps，beingthatbetweenthedamp，hot，steaming，alluvialcoastplainsoftheWestCoastofAfricaandthearid，elevatedsteppesandplateauxofCentralAsia，bitterlycoldinwinter，andasfarfromtheseaasanypartoftheworldcanbe。
FromCentralAsiaeastwardtothePacificIslandsandsubcontinentsontheonehand，andtoAmericaontheother，brachycephalyandorthognathismgraduallydiminish，andarereplacedbydolichocephalyandprognathism，less，however，ontheAmericanContinent（throughoutthewholelengthofwhicharoundedtypeofskullprevailslargely，butnotexclusively）*thaninthePacificregion，where，atlength，ontheAustralianContinentandintheadjacentislands，theoblongskull，theprojectingjaws，andthedarkskinreappear；withsomuchdeparture，inotherrespects，fromtheNegrotype，thatethnologistsassigntothesepeoplethespecialtitleof’Negritoes。’
[footnote]*SeeDr。D。Wilson’svaluablepaper"OnthesupposedprevalenceofoneCranialTypethroughouttheAmericanaborigines。"——’CanadianJournal’，vol。ii。，1857。
TheAustralianskullisremarkableforitsnarrownessandforthethicknessofitswalls，especiallyintheregionofthesupraciliaryridge，whichisfrequently，thoughnotbyanymeansinvariably，solidthroughout，thefrontalsinusesremainingundeveloped。Thenasaldepression，again，isextremelysudden，sothatthebrowsoverhangandgivethecountenanceaparticularlylowering，threateningexpression。
Theoccipitalregionoftheskull，also，notunfrequentlybecomeslessprominent；sothatitnotonlyfailstoprojectbeyondalinedrawnperpendiculartothehinderextremityoftheglabello—occipitalline，buteven，insomecases，beginstoshelveawayfromit，forwards，almostimmediately。Inconsequenceofthiscircumstance，thepartsoftheoccipitalbonewhichlieaboveandbelowthetuberositymakeamuchmoreacuteanglewithoneanotherthanisusual，wherebythehinderpartofthebaseoftheskullappearsobliquelytruncated。ManyAustralianskullshaveaconsiderableheight，quiteequaltothatoftheaverageofanyotherrace，butthereareothersinwhichthecranialroofbecomesremarkablydepressed，theskull，atthesametime，elongatingsomuchthat，probably，itscapacityisnotdiminished。Themajorityofskullspossessingthesecharacters，whichIhaveseen，arefromtheneighbourhoodofPortAdelaideinSouthAustralia，andhavebeenusedbythenativesaswatervessels；towhichendthefacehasbeenknockedaway，andastringpassedthroughthevacuityandtheoccipitalforamen，sothattheskullwassuspendedbythegreaterpartofitsbasis。
FIG。30。——AnAustralianskullfromWesternPort，intheMuseumoftheRoyalCollegeofSurgeons，withthecontouroftheNeanderthalskull。
Bothreducedtoone—thirdthenaturalsize。
Figure30representsthecontourofaskullofthiskindfromWesternPort，withthejawattached，andoftheNeanderthalskull，bothreducedtoone—thirdofthesizeofnature。Asmalladditionalamountofflatteningandlengthening，withacorrespondingincreaseofthesupraciliaryridge，wouldconverttheAustralianbraincaseintoaformidenticalwiththatoftheaberrantfossil。
Andnow，toreturntothefossilskulls，andtotherankwhichtheyoccupyamong，orbeyond，theseexistingvarietiesofcranialconformation。Inthefirstplace，Imustremark，that，asProfessorSchmerlingwellobserved（’supra’，p。300）incommentingupontheEngisskull，theformationofasafejudgmentuponthequestionisgreatlyhinderedbytheabsenceofthejawsfromboththecrania，sothatthereisnomeansofdecidingwithcertainty，whethertheyweremoreorlessprognathousthanthelowerexistingracesofmankind。Andyet，aswehaveseen，itismoreinthisrespectthananyother，thathumanskullsvary，towardsandfrom，thebrutaltype——thebraincaseofanaveragedolichocephalicEuropeandifferingfarlessfromthatofaNegro，forexample，thanhisjawsdo。Intheabsenceofthejaws，then，anyjudgmentontherelationsofthefossilskullstorecentRacesmustbeacceptedwithacertainreservation。
Buttakingtheevidenceasitstands，andturningfirsttotheEngisskull，IconfessIcanfindnocharacterintheremainsofthatcraniumwhich，ifitwerearecentskull，wouldgiveanytrustworthyclueastotheRacetowhichitmightappertain。ItscontoursandmeasurementsagreeverywellwiththoseofsomeAustralianskullswhichIhaveexamined——andespeciallyhasitatendencytowardsthatoccipitalflattening，tothegreatextentofwhich，insomeAustralianskulls，I
havealluded。ButallAustralianskullsdonotpresentthisflattening，andthesupraciliaryridgeoftheEngisskullisquiteunlikethatofthetypicalAustralians。
Ontheotherhand，itsmeasurementsagreeequallywellwiththoseofsomeEuropeanskulls。Andassuredly，thereisnomarkofdegradationaboutanypartofitsstructure。Itis，infact，afairaveragehumanskull，whichmighthavebelongedtoaphilosopher，ormighthavecontainedthethoughtlessbrainsofasavage。
ThecaseoftheNeanderthalskullisverydifferent。Underwhateveraspectweviewthiscranium，whetherweregarditsverticaldepression，theenormousthicknessofitssupraciliaryridges，itsslopedocciput，oritslongandstraightsquamosalsuture，wemeetwithape—likecharacters，stampingitasthemostpithecoidofhumancraniayetdiscovered。ButProfessorSchaaffhausenstates（’supra’，p。308），thatthecranium，initspresentcondition，holds1033。24cubiccentimetresofwater，orabout63cubicinches，andastheentireskullcouldhardlyhaveheldlessthananadditional12cubicinches，itscapacitymaybeestimatedatabout75cubicinches，whichistheaveragecapacitygivenbyMortonforPolynesianandHottentotskulls。
Solargeamassofbrainasthis，wouldalonesuggestthatthepithecoidtendencies，indicatedbythisskull，didnotextenddeepintotheorganization；andthisconclusionisborneoutbythedimensionsoftheotherbonesoftheskeletongivenbyProfessorSchaaffhausen，whichshowthattheabsoluteheightandrelativeproportionsofthelimbswerequitethoseofanEuropeanofmiddlestature。Thebonesareindeedstouter，butthisandthegreatdevelopmentofthemuscularridgesnotedbyDr。Schaaffhausen，arecharacterstobeexpectedinsavages。ThePatagonians，exposedwithoutshelterorprotectiontoaclimatepossiblynotverydissimilarfromthatofEuropeatthetimeduringwhichtheNeanderthalmanlived，areremarkableforthestoutnessoftheirlimbbones。
FIG。31。——AncientDanishskullfromatumulusatBorreby：one—thirdofthenaturalsize。FromacameralucidadrawingbyMr。Busk。
Innosense，then，cantheNeanderthalbonesberegardedastheremainsofahumanbeingintermediatebetweenMenandApes。Atmost，theydemonstratetheexistenceofamanwhoseskullmaybesaidtorevertsomewhattowardsthepithecoidtype——justasaCarrier，oraPouter，oraTumbler，maysometimesputontheplumageofitsprimitivestock，the’Columbalivia’。Andindeed，thoughtrulythemostpithecoidofknownhumanskulls，theNeanderthalcraniumisbynomeanssoisolatedasitappearstobeatfirst，butforms，inreality，theextremetermofaseriesleadinggraduallyfromittothehighestandbestdevelopedofhumancrania。Ontheonehand，itiscloselyapproachedbytheflattenedAustralianskulls，ofwhichIhavespoken，fromwhichotherAustralianformsleadusgraduallyuptoskullshavingverymuchthetypeoftheEngiscranium。And，ontheotherhand，itisevenmorecloselyaffinedtotheskullsofcertainancientpeoplewhoinhabitedDenmarkduringthe’stoneperiod，’andwereprobablyeithercontemporaneouswith，orlaterthan，themakersofthe’refuseheaps，’
or’Kjokkenmoddings’ofthatcountry。
ThecorrespondencebetweenthelongitudinalcontouroftheNeanderthalskullandthatofsomeofthoseskullsfromthetumuliatBorreby，veryaccuratedrawingsofwhichhavebeenmadebyMr。Busk，isveryclose。
Theocciputisquiteasretreating，thesupraciliaryridgesarenearlyasprominent，andtheskullisaslow。Furthermore，theBorrebyskullresemblestheNeanderthalformmorecloselythananyoftheAustralianskullsdo，bythemuchmorerapidretrocessionoftheforehead。Ontheotherhand，theBorrebyskullsareallsomewhatbroader，inproportiontotheirlength，thantheNeanderthalskull，whilesomeattainthatproportionofbreadthtolength（80：100）whichconstitutesbrachycephaly。
Inconclusion，Imaysay，thatthefossilremainsofManhithertodiscovereddonotseemtometotakeusappreciablynearertothatlowerpithecoidform，bythemodificationofwhichhehas，probably，becomewhatheis。Andconsideringwhatisnowknownofthemostancientracesofmen；seeingthattheyfashionedflintaxesandflintknivesandbone—skewers，ofmuchthesamepatternasthosefabricatedbythelowestsavagesatthepresentday，andthatwehaveeveryreasontobelievethehabitsandmodesoflivingofsuchpeopletohaveremainedthesamefromthetimeoftheMammothandthetichorhineRhinocerostillnow，Idonotknowthatthisresultisotherthanmightbeexpected。
Where，then，mustwelookforprimaevalMan？Wastheoldest’Homosapiens’plioceneormiocene，oryetmoreancient？InstillolderstratadothefossilizedbonesofanApemoreanthropoid，oraManmorepithecoid，thananyyetknownawaittheresearchesofsomeunbornpaleontologist？
Timewillshow。But，inthemeanwhile，ifanyformofthedoctrineofprogressivedevelopmentiscorrect，wemustextendbylongepochsthemostliberalestimatethathasyetbeenmadeoftheantiquityofMan。