Thus，then，arenaturalproductsproduced；allotherproductions
　　arecalled’makings’。Andallmakingsproceedeitherfromartor
　　fromafacultyorfromthought。Someofthemhappenalsospontaneously
　　orbyluckjustasnaturalproductssometimesdo；fortherealsothe
　　samethingssometimesareproducedwithoutseedaswellasfrom
　　seed。Concerningthesecases，then，wemustinquirelater，butfrom
　　artproceedthethingsofwhichtheformisinthesouloftheartist。
　　ByformImeantheessenceofeachthinganditsprimary
　　substance。Forevencontrarieshaveinasensethesameform；forthe
　　substanceofaprivationistheoppositesubstance，e。g。healthisthe
　　substanceofdiseasefordiseaseistheabsenceofhealth；and
　　healthistheformulainthesoulortheknowledgeofit。The
　　healthysubjectisproducedastheresultofthefollowingtrainof
　　thought:-sincethisishealth，ifthesubjectistobehealthythis
　　mustfirstbepresent，e。g。auniformstateofbody，andifthisisto
　　bepresent，theremustbeheat；andthephysiciangoesonthinking
　　thusuntilhereducesthemattertoafinalsomethingwhichhehimself
　　canproduce。Thentheprocessfromthispointonward，i。e。theprocess
　　towardshealth，iscalleda’making’。Thereforeitfollowsthatina
　　sensehealthcomesfromhealthandhousefromhouse，thatwith
　　matterfromthatwithoutmatter；forthemedicalartandthe
　　buildingartaretheformofhealthandofthehouse，andwhenIspeak
　　ofsubstancewithoutmatterImeantheessence。
　　Oftheproductionsorprocessesonepartiscalledthinkingand
　　theothermaking，-thatwhichproceedsfromthestarting-pointand
　　theformisthinking，andthatwhichproceedsfromthefinalstepof
　　thethinkingismaking。Andeachoftheother，intermediate，thingsis
　　producedinthesameway。Imean，forinstance，ifthesubjectisto
　　behealthyhisbodilystatemustbemadeuniform。Whatthendoesbeing
　　madeuniformimply？Thisorthat。Andthisdependsonhisbeingmade
　　warm。Whatdoesthisimply？Somethingelse。Andthissomethingis
　　presentpotentially；andwhatispresentpotentiallyisalreadyinthe
　　physician’spower。
　　Theactiveprinciplethenandthestartingpointfortheprocess
　　ofbecominghealthyis，ifithappensbyart，theforminthesoul，
　　andifspontaneously，itisthat，whateveritis，whichstartsthe
　　making，forthemanwhomakesbyart，asinhealingthestarting-point
　　isperhapstheproductionofwarmthandthisthephysicianproduces
　　byrubbing。Warmthinthebody，then，iseitherapartofhealthor
　　isfollowedeitherdirectlyorthroughseveralintermediatestepsby
　　somethingsimilarwhichisapartofhealth；andthis，viz。thatwhich
　　producesthepartofhealth，isthelimiting-point——andsotoowith
　　ahousethestonesarethelimiting-pointhereandinallother
　　cases。Therefore，asthesayinggoes，itisimpossiblethatanything
　　shouldbeproducediftherewerenothingexistingbefore。Obviously
　　thensomepartoftheresultwillpre-existofnecessity；forthe
　　matterisapart；forthisispresentintheprocessanditisthis
　　thatbecomessomething。Butisthematteranelementeveninthe
　　formula？Wecertainlydescribeinbothwayswhatbrazencirclesare；
　　wedescribeboththematterbysayingitisbrass，andtheformby
　　sayingthatitissuchandsuchafigure；andfigureisthe
　　proximategenusinwhichitisplaced。Thebrazencircle，then，has
　　itsmatterinitsformula。
　　Asforthatoutofwhichasmattertheyareproduced，some
　　thingsaresaid，whentheyhavebeenproduced，tobenotthatbut
　　’thaten’；e。g。thestatueisnotgoldbutgolden。Andahealthymanis
　　notsaidtobethatfromwhichhehascome。Thereasonisthat
　　thoughathingcomesbothfromitsprivationandfromits
　　substratum，whichwecallitsmattere。g。whatbecomeshealthyis
　　bothamanandaninvalid，itissaidtocomeratherfromits
　　privatione。g。itisfromaninvalidratherthanfromamanthata
　　healthysubjectisproduced。Andsothehealthysubjectisnotsaid
　　toheaninvalid，buttobeaman，andthemanissaidtobe
　　healthy。Butasforthethingswhoseprivationisobscureand
　　nameless，e。g。inbrasstheprivationofaparticularshapeorin
　　bricksandtimbertheprivationofarrangementasahouse，thething
　　isthoughttobeproducedfromthesematerials，asintheformer
　　casethehealthymanisproducedfromaninvalid。Andso，asthere
　　alsoathingisnotsaidtobethatfromwhichitcomes，herethe
　　statueisnotsaidtobewoodbutissaidbyaverbalchangetobe
　　wooden，notbrassbutbrazen，notgoldbutgolden，andthehouseis
　　saidtobenotbricksbutbrickenthoughweshouldnotsaywithout
　　qualification，ifwelookedatthemattercarefully，eventhata
　　statueisproducedfromwoodorahousefrombricks，becausecomingto
　　beimplieschangeinthatfromwhichathingcomestobe，andnot
　　permanence。Itisforthisreason，then，thatweusethiswayof
　　speaking。
　　Sinceanythingwhichisproducedisproducedbysomethingand
　　thisIcallthestarting-pointoftheproduction，andfrom
　　somethingandletthisbetakentobenottheprivationbutthe
　　matter；forthemeaningweattachtothishasalreadybeenexplained，
　　andsincesomethingisproducedandthisiseitherasphereora
　　circleorwhateverelseitmaychancetobe，justaswedonotmake
　　thesubstratumthebrass，sowedonotmakethesphere，except
　　incidentally，becausethebrazensphereisasphereandwemakethe
　　forme。Fortomakea’this’istomakea’this’outofthe
　　substratuminthefullsenseoftheword。Imeanthattomakethe
　　brassroundisnottomaketheroundorthesphere，butsomething
　　else，i。e。toproducethisforminsomethingdifferentfromitself。
　　Forifwemaketheform，wemustmakeitoutofsomethingelse；for
　　thiswasassumed。E。g。wemakeabrazensphere；andthatinthe
　　sensethatoutofthis，whichisbrass，wemakethisother，whichisa
　　sphere。If，then，wealsomakethesubstratumitself，clearlywe
　　shallmakeitinthesameway，andtheprocessesofmakingwill
　　regresstoinfinity。Obviouslythentheformalso，orwhateverwe
　　oughttocalltheshapepresentinthesensiblething，isnot
　　produced，noristhereanyproductionofit，noristheessence
　　produced；forthisisthatwhichismadetobeinsomethingelse
　　eitherbyartorbynatureorbysomefaculty。Butthatthereisa
　　brazensphere，thiswemake。Forwemakeitoutofbrassandthe
　　sphere；webringtheformintothisparticularmatter，andthe
　　resultisabrazensphere。Butiftheessenceofsphereingeneral
　　istobeproduced，somethingmustbeproducedoutofsomething。For
　　theproductwillalwayshavetobedivisible，andonepartmustbe
　　thisandanotherthat；Imeantheonemustbematterandtheother
　　form。If，then，asphereis’thefigurewhosecircumferenceisat
　　allpointsequidistantfromthecentre’，partofthiswillbethe
　　mediuminwhichthethingmadewillbe，andpartwillbeinthat
　　medium，andthewholewillbethethingproduced，whichcorrespondsto
　　thebrazensphere。Itisobvious，then，fromwhathasbeensaid，
　　thatthatwhichisspokenofasformorsubstanceisnotproduced，but
　　theconcretethingwhichgetsitsnamefromthisisproduced，andthat
　　ineverythingwhichisgeneratedmatterispresent，andonepartof
　　thethingismatterandtheotherform。
　　Isthere，then，asphereapartfromtheindividualspheresora
　　houseapartfromthebricks？Ratherwemaysaythatno’this’would
　　everhavebeencomingtobe，ifthishadbeenso，butthatthe
　　’form’meansthe’such’，andisnota’this’-adefinitething；butthe
　　artistmakes，orthefatherbegets，a’such’outofa’this’；andwhen
　　ithasbeenbegotten，itisa’thissuch’。Andthewhole’this’，
　　CalliasorSocrates，isanalogousto’thisbrazensphere’，butmanand
　　animalto’brazensphere’ingeneral。Obviously，then，thecausewhich
　　consistsoftheFormstakeninthesenseinwhichsomemaintainthe
　　existenceoftheForms，i。e。iftheyaresomethingapartfromthe
　　individualsisuseless，atleastwithregardtocomings-to-beand
　　tosubstances；andtheFormsneednot，forthisreasonatleast，be
　　self-subsistentsubstances。Insomecasesindeeditisevenobvious
　　thatthebegetterisofthesamekindasthebegottennot，however，
　　thesamenoroneinnumber，butinform，i。e。inthecaseof
　　naturalproductsformanbegetsman，unlesssomethinghappens
　　contrarytonature，e。g。theproductionofamulebyahorse。And
　　eventhesecasesaresimilar；forthatwhichwouldbefoundtobe
　　commontohorseandass，thegenusnextabovethem，hasnotreceiveda
　　name，butitwoulddoubtlessbebothinfactsomethinglikeamule。
　　Obviously，therefore，itisquiteunnecessarytosetupaFormasa
　　patternforweshouldhavelookedforFormsinthesecasesifinany；
　　forthesearesubstancesifanythingisso；thebegetteris
　　adequatetothemakingoftheproductandtothecausingoftheform
　　inthematter。Andwhenwehavethewhole，suchandsuchaformin
　　thisfleshandinthesebones，thisisCalliasorSocrates；andthey
　　aredifferentinvirtueoftheirmatterforthatisdifferent，but
　　thesameinform；fortheirformisindivisible。
　　Thequestionmightberaised，whysomethingsareproduced
　　spontaneouslyaswellasbyart，e。g。health，whileothersarenot，
　　e。g。ahouse。Thereasonisthatinsomecasesthematterwhich
　　governstheproductioninthemakingandproducingofanyworkofart，
　　andinwhichapartoftheproductispresent，-somematterissuch
　　astobesetinmotionbyitselfandsomeisnotofthisnature，and
　　oftheformerkindsomecanmoveitselfintheparticularway
　　required，whileothermatterisincapableofthis；formanythingscan
　　besetinmotionbythemselvesbutnotinsomeparticularway，e。g。
　　thatofdancing。Thethings，then，whosematterisofthissort，
　　e。g。stones，cannotbemovedintheparticularwayrequired，exceptby
　　somethingelse，butinanotherwaytheycanmovethemselves-andso
　　itiswithfire。Thereforesomethingswillnotexistapartfrom
　　someonewhohastheartofmakingthem，whileotherswill；formotion
　　willbestartedbythesethingswhichhavenottheartbutcan
　　themselvesbemovedbyotherthingswhichhavenottheartorwitha
　　motionstartingfromapartoftheproduct。
　　Anditisclearalsofromwhathasbeensaidthatinasenseevery
　　productofartisproducedfromathingwhichsharesitsnameas
　　naturalproductsareproduced，orfromapartofitselfwhich
　　sharesitsnamee。g。thehouseisproducedfromahouse，quaproduced
　　byreason；fortheartofbuildingistheformofthehouse，or
　　fromsomethingwhichcontainsaartofit，-ifweexcludethings
　　producedbyaccident；forthecauseofthething’sproducingthe
　　productdirectlyperseisapartoftheproduct。Theheatinthe
　　movementcausedheatinthebody，andthisiseitherhealth，orapart
　　ofhealth，orisfollowedbyapartofhealthorbyhealthitself。And
　　soitissaidtocausehealth，becauseitcausesthattowhich
　　healthattachesasaconsequence。
　　Therefore，asinsyllogisms，substanceisthestarting-pointof
　　everything。Itisfrom’whatathingis’thatsyllogismsstart；and
　　fromitalsowenowfindprocessesofproductiontostart。
　　Thingswhichareformedbynatureareinthesamecaseasthese
　　productsofart。Fortheseedisproductiveinthesamewayasthe
　　thingsthatworkbyart；forithastheformpotentially，andthat
　　fromwhichtheseedcomeshasinasensethesamenameasthe
　　offspringonlyinasense，forwemustnotexpectparentandoffspring
　　alwaystohaveexactlythesamename，asintheproductionof’human
　　being’from’human’fora’woman’alsocanbeproducedbya
　　’man’-unlesstheoffspringbeanimperfectform；whichisthereason
　　whytheparentofamuleisnotamule。Thenaturalthingswhichlike
　　theartificialobjectspreviouslyconsideredcanbeproduced
　　spontaneouslyarethosewhosemattercanbemovedevenbyitselfin
　　thewayinwhichtheseedusuallymovesit；thosethingswhichhave
　　notsuchmattercannotbeproducedexceptfromtheparentanimals
　　themselves。
　　Butnotonlyregardingsubstancedoesourargumentprovethat
　　itsformdoesnotcometobe，buttheargumentappliestoallthe
　　primaryclassesalike，i。e。quantity，quality，andtheother
　　categories。Forasthebrazenspherecomestobe，butnotthesphere
　　northebrass，andsotoointhecaseofbrassitself，ifitcomes
　　tobe，itisitsconcreteunitythatcomestobeforthematterand
　　theformmustalwaysexistbefore，soisitbothinthecaseof
　　substanceandinthatofqualityandquantityandtheothercategories
　　likewise；forthequalitydoesnotcometobe，butthewoodofthat
　　quality，andthequantitydoesnotcometobe，butthewoodorthe
　　animalofthatsize。Butwemaylearnfromtheseinstancesa
　　peculiarityofsubstance，thattheremustexistbeforehandincomplete
　　realityanothersubstancewhichproducesit，e。g。ananimalifan
　　animalisproduced；butitisnotnecessarythataqualityorquantity
　　shouldpre-existotherwisethanpotentially。