Itmaythereforebeobjectedthattherecanhavebeennosuchinitialstageofpeaceablelifeasishereassumed。Thereisnopointinculturalevolutionpriortowhichfightingdoesnotoccur。Butthepointinquestionisnotastotheoccurrenceofcombat，occasionalorsporadic，orevenmoreorlessfrequentandhabitual；itisaquestionastotheoccurrenceofanhabitual；
　　itisaquestionastotheoccurrenceofanhabitualbellicosefromofmind——aprevalenthabitofjudgingfactsandeventsfromthepointofviewofthefight。Thepredatoryphaseofcultureisattainedonlywhenthepredatoryattitudehasbecomethehabitualandaccreditedspiritualattitudeforthemembersofthegroup；whenthefighthasbecomethedominantnoteinthecurrenttheoryoflife；whenthecommon-senseappreciationofmenandthingshascometobeanappreciationwithaviewtocombat。
　　Thesubstantialdifferencebetweenthepeaceableandthepredatoryphaseofculture，therefore，isaspiritualdifference，notamechanicalone。Thechangeinspiritualattitudeistheoutgrowthofachangeinthematerialfactsofthelifeofthegroup，anditcomesongraduallyasthematerialcircumstancesfavourabletoapredatoryattitudesupervene。Theinferiorlimitofthepredatorycultureisanindustriallimit。Predationcannotbecomethehabitual，conventionalresourceofanygrouporanyclassuntilindustrialmethodshavebeendevelopedtosuchadegreeofefficiencyastoleaveamarginworthfightingfor，abovethesubsistenceofthoseengagedingettingaliving。Thetransitionfrompeacetopredationthereforedependsonthegrowthoftechnicalknowledgeandtheuseoftools。Apredatorycultureissimilarlyimpracticableinearlytimes，untilweaponshavebeendevelopedtosuchapointastomakemanaformidableanimal。Theearlydevelopmentoftoolsandofweaponsisofcoursethesamefactseenfromtwodifferentpointsofview。
　　Thelifeofagivengroupwouldbecharacterisedaspeaceablesolongashabitualrecoursetocombathasnotbroughtthefightintotheforegroundinmen’severydaythoughts，asadominantfeatureofthelifeofman。Agroupmayevidentlyattainsuchapredatoryattitudewithagreaterorlessdegreeofcompleteness，sothatitsschemeoflifeandcanonsofconductmaybecontrolledtoagreaterorlessextentbythepredatoryanimus。Thepredatoryphaseofcultureisthereforeconceivedtocomeongradually，throughacumulativegrowthofpredatoryaptitudeshabits，andtraditionsthisgrowthbeingduetoachangeinthecircumstancesofthegroup’slife，ofsuchakindastodevelopandconservethosetraitsofhumannatureandthosetraditionsandnormsofconductthatmakeforapredatoryratherthanapeaceablelife。
　　Theevidenceforthehypothesisthattherehasbeensuchapeaceablestageofprimitivecultureisingreatpartdrawnfrompsychologyratherthanfromethnology，andcannotbedetailedhere。Itwillberecitedinpartinalaterchapter，indiscussingthesurvivalofarchaictraitsofhumannatureunderthemodernculture。
　　PecuniaryEmulationInthesequenceofculturalevolutiontheemergenceofaleisureclasscoincideswiththebeginningofownership。Thisisnecessarilythecase，forthesetwoinstitutionsresultfromthesamesetofeconomicforces。Intheinchoatephaseoftheirdevelopmenttheyarebutdifferentaspectsofthesamegeneralfactsofsocialstructure。
　　Itisaselementsofsocialstructure——conventionalfacts——thatleisureandownershiparemattersofinterestforthepurposeinhand。Anhabitualneglectofworkdoesnotconstitutealeisureclass；neitherdoesthemechanicalfactofuseandconsumptionconstituteownership。Thepresentinquiry，therefore，isnotconcernedwiththebeginningofindolence，norwiththebeginningoftheappropriationofusefularticlestoindividualconsumption。Thepointinquestionistheoriginandnatureofaconventionalleisureclassontheonehandandthebeginningsofindividualownershipasaconventionalrightorequitableclaimontheotherhand。
　　Theearlydifferentiationoutofwhichthedistinctionbetweenaleisureandaworkingclassarisesisadivisionmaintainedbetweenmen’sandwomen’sworkinthelowerstagesofbarbarism。Likewisetheearliestformofownershipisanownershipofthewomenbytheablebodiedmenofthecommunity。
　　Thefactsmaybeexpressedinmoregeneralterms。andtruertotheimportofthebarbariantheoryoflife，bysayingthatitisanownershipofthewomanbytheman。
　　Therewasundoubtedlysomeappropriationofusefularticlesbeforethecustomofappropriatingwomenarose。Theusagesofexistingarchaiccommunitiesinwhichthereisnoownershipofwomeniswarrantforsuchaview。Inallcommunitiesthemembers，bothmaleandfemale，habituallyappropriatetotheirindividualuseavarietyofusefulthings；buttheseusefulthingsarenotthoughtofasownedbythepersonwhoappropriatesandconsumesthem。Thehabitualappropriationandconsumptionofcertainslightpersonaleffectsgoesonwithoutraisingthequestionofownership；thatistosay，thequestionofaconventional，equitableclaimtoextraneousthings。
　　Theownershipofwomenbeginsinthelowerbarbarianstagesofculture，apparentlywiththeseizureoffemalecaptives。Theoriginalreasonfortheseizureandappropriationofwomenseemstohavebeentheirusefulnessastrophies。Thepracticeofseizingwomenfromtheenemyastrophies，gaverisetoaformofownership-marriage，resultinginahouseholdwithamalehead。
　　Thiswasfollowedbyanextensionofslaverytoothercaptivesandinferiors，besideswomen，andbyanextensionofownership猰arriagetootherwomenthanthoseseizedfromtheenemy。Theoutcomeofemulationunderthecircumstancesofapredatorylife，therefore，hasbeenontheonehandaformofmarriagerestingoncoercion，andontheotherhandthecustomofownership。Thetwoinstitutionsarenotdistinguishableintheinitialphaseoftheirdevelopment；botharisefromthedesireofthesuccessfulmentoputtheirprowessinevidencebyexhibitingsomedurableresultoftheirexploits。Bothalsoministertothatpropensityformasterywhichpervadesallpredatorycommunities。
　　Fromtheownershipofwomentheconceptofownershipextendsitselftoincludetheproductsoftheirindustry，andsotherearisestheownershipofthingsaswellasofpersons。
　　Inthiswayaconsistentsystemofpropertyingoodsisgraduallyinstalled。Andalthoughinthelateststagesofthedevelopment，theserviceabilityofgoodsforconsumptionhascometobethemostobtrusiveelementoftheirvalue，still，wealthhasbynomeansyetlostitsutilityasahonorificevidenceoftheowner’sprepotence。
　　Wherevertheinstitutionofprivatepropertyisfound，eveninaslightlydevelopedform，theeconomicprocessbearsthecharacterofastrugglebetweenmenforthepossessionofgoods。
　　Ithasbeencustomaryineconomictheory，andespeciallyamongthoseeconomistswhoadherewithleastfalteringtothebodyofmodernisedclassicaldoctrines，toconstruethisstruggleforwealthasbeingsubstantiallyastruggleforsubsistence。Suchis，nodoubt，itscharacterinlargepartduringtheearlierandlessefficientphasesofindustry。Suchisalsoitscharacterinallcaseswherethe“niggardlinessofnature“issostrictastoaffordbutascantylivelihoodtothecommunityinreturnforstrenuousandunremittingapplicationtothebusinessofgettingthemeansofsubsistence。Butinallprogressingcommunitiesanadvanceispresentlymadebeyondthisearlystageoftechnologicaldevelopment。Industrialefficiencyispresentlycarriedtosuchapitchastoaffordsomethingappreciablymorethanabarelivelihoodtothoseengagedintheindustrialprocess。Ithasnotbeenunusualforeconomictheorytospeakofthefurtherstruggleforwealthonthisnewindustrialbasisasacompetitionforanincreaseofthecomfortsoflife，——primarilyforanincreaseofthephysicalcomfortswhichtheconsumptionofgoodsaffords。
　　Theendofacquisitionandaccumulationisconventionallyheldtobetheconsumptionofthegoodsaccumulated——whetheritisconsumptiondirectlybytheownerofthegoodsorbythehouseholdattachedtohimandforthispurposeidentifiedwithhimintheory。Thisisatleastfelttobetheeconomicallylegitimateendofacquisition，whichaloneitisincumbentonthetheorytotakeaccountof。Suchconsumptionmayofcoursebeconceivedtoservetheconsumer’sphysicalwants——hisphysicalcomfort——orhisso-calledhigherwants——spiritual，aesthetic，intellectual，orwhatnot；thelatterclassofwantsbeingservedindirectlybyanexpenditureofgoods，afterthefashionfamiliartoalleconomicreaders。
　　Butitisonlywhentakeninasensefarremovedfromitsnaivemeaningthatconsumptionofgoodscanbesaidtoaffordtheincentivefromwhichaccumulationinvariablyproceeds。Themotivethatliesattherootofownershipisemulation；andthesamemotiveofemulationcontinuesactiveinthefurtherdevelopmentoftheinstitutiontowhichithasgivenriseandinthedevelopmentofallthosefeaturesofthesocialstructurewhichthisinstitutionofownershiptouches。Thepossessionofwealthconfershonour；itisaninvidiousdistinction。Nothingequallycogentcanbesaidfortheconsumptionofgoods，norforanyotherconceivableincentivetoacquisition，andespeciallynotforanyincentivetoaccumulationofwealth。
　　Itisofcoursenottobeoverlookedthatinacommunitywherenearlyallgoodsareprivatepropertythenecessityofearningalivelihoodisapowerfulandeverpresentincentiveforthepoorermembersofthecommunity。Theneedofsubsistenceandofanincreaseofphysicalcomfortmayforatimebethedominantmotiveofacquisitionforthoseclasseswhoarehabituallyemployedatmanuallabour，whosesubsistenceisonaprecariousfooting，whopossesslittleandordinarilyaccumulatelittle；butitwillappearinthecourseofthediscussionthateveninthecaseoftheseimpecuniousclassesthepredominanceofthemotiveofphysicalwantisnotsodecidedashassometimesbeenassumed。
　　Ontheotherhand，sofarasregardsthosemembersandclassesofthecommunitywhoarechieflyconcernedintheaccumulationofwealth，theincentiveofsubsistenceorofphysicalcomfortneverplaysaconsiderablepart。Ownershipbeganandgrewintoahumaninstitutionongroundsunrelatedtothesubsistenceminimum。Thedominantincentivewasfromtheoutsettheinvidiousdistinctionattachingtowealth，and，savetemporarilyandbyexception，noothermotivehasusurpedtheprimacyatanylaterstageofthedevelopment。
　　Propertysetoutwithbeingbootyheldastrophiesofthesuccessfulraid。Solongasthegrouphaddepartedandsolongasitstillstoodinclosecontactwithotherhostilegroups，theutilityofthingsorpersonsownedlaychieflyinaninvidiouscomparisonbetweentheirpossessorandtheenemyfromwhomtheyweretaken。Thehabitofdistinguishingbetweentheinterestsoftheindividualandthoseofthegrouptowhichhebelongsisapparentlyalatergrowth。Invidiouscomparisonbetweenthepossessorofthehonorificbootyandhislesssuccessfulneighbourswithinthegroupwasnodoubtpresentearlyasanelementoftheutilityofthethingspossessed，thoughthiswasnotattheoutsetthechiefelementoftheirvalue。Theman’sprowesswasstillprimarilythegroup’sprowess，andthepossessorofthebootyfelthimselftobeprimarilythekeeperofthehonourofhisgroup。Thisappreciationofexploitfromthecommunalpointofviewismetwithalsoatlaterstagesofsocialgrowth，especiallyasregardsthelaurelsofwar。
　　Butassoonasthecustomofindividualownershipbeginstogainconsistency，thepointofviewtakeninmakingtheinvidiouscomparisononwhichprivatepropertyrestswillbegintochange。
　　Indeed，theonechangeisbutthereflexoftheother。Theinitialphaseofownership，thephaseofacquisitionbynaiveseizureandconversion，beginstopassintothesubsequentstageofanincipientorganizationofindustryonthebasisofprivatepropertyinslaves；thehordedevelopsintoamoreorlessself-sufficingindustrialcommunity；possessionsthencometobevaluednotsomuchasevidenceofsuccessfulforay，butratherasevidenceoftheprepotenceofthepossessorofthesegoodsoverotherindividualswithinthecommunity。Theinvidiouscomparisonnowbecomesprimarilyacomparisonoftheownerwiththeothermembersofthegroup。Propertyisstillofthenatureoftrophy，but，withtheculturaladvance，itbecomesmoreandmoreatrophyofsuccessesscoredinthegameofownershipcarriedonbetweenthemembersofthegroupunderthequasi-peaceablemethodsofnomadiclife。
　　Gradually，asindustrialactivityfurtherdisplacedpredatoryactivityinthecommunity’severydaylifeandinmen’shabitsofthought，accumulatedpropertymoreandmorereplacestrophiesofpredatoryexploitastheconventionalexponentofprepotenceandsuccess。Withthegrowthofsettledindustry，therefore，thepossessionofwealthgainsinrelativeimportanceandeffectivenessasacustomarybasisofreputeandesteem。Notthatesteemceasestobeawardedonthebasisofother，moredirectevidenceofprowess；notthatsuccessfulpredatoryaggressionorwarlikeexploitceasestocallouttheapprovalandadmirationofthecrowd，ortostirtheenvyofthelesssuccessfulcompetitors；buttheopportunitiesforgainingdistinctionbymeansofthisdirectmanifestationofsuperiorforcegrowlessavailablebothinscopeandfrequency。Atthesametimeopportunitiesforindustrialaggression，andfortheaccumulationofproperty，increaseinscopeandavailability。