Asallthosewhohadarrivedatthisstateofperfection,wereequallyhappy。soallthosewhofellinthesmallestdegreeshortofit,hownearlysoevertheymightapproachtoit,wereequallymiserable。Astheman,theysaid,whowasbutaninchbelowthesurfaceofthewater,couldnomorebreathethanhewhowasanhundredyardsbelowit;sothemanwhohadnotcompletelysubduedallhisprivate,partial,andselfishpassions,whohadanyotherearnestdesirebutthatfortheuniversalhappiness,whohadnotcompletelyemergedfromthatabyssofmiseryanddisorderintowhichhisanxietyforthegratificationofthoseprivate,partial,andselfishpassionshadinvolvedhim,couldnomorebreathethefreeairoflibertyandindependency,couldnomoreenjoythesecurityandhappinessofthewiseman,thanhewhowasmostremotefromthatsituation。Asalltheactionsofthewisemanwereperfect,andequallyperfect;soallthoseofthemanwhohadnotarrivedatthissupremewisdomwerefaulty,and,assomeStoicspretended,equallyfaulty。Asonetruth,theysaid,couldnotbemoretrue,noronefalsehoodmorefalsethananother;soanhonourableactioncouldnotbemorehonourable,norashamefulonemoreshamefulthananother。Asinshootingatamark,themanwhomisseditbyaninchhadequallymisseditwithhimwhohaddonesobyahundredyards;sothemanwho,inwhattousappearsthemostinsignificantaction,hadactedimproperlyandwithoutasufficientreason,wasequallyfaultywithhimwhohaddonesoin,whattousappears,themostimportant;themanwhohaskilledacock,forexample,improperlyandwithoutasufficientreason,withhimwhohadmurderedhisfather。
  Ifthefirstofthosetwoparadoxesshouldappearsufficientlyviolent,thesecondisevidentlytooabsurdtodeserveanyseriousconsideration。Itis,indeed,soveryabsurdthatonecanscarcehelpsuspectingthatitmusthavebeeninsomemeasuremisunderstoodormisrepresented。Atanyrate,I
  cannotallowmyselftobelievethatsuchmenasZenoorCleanthes,men,itissaid,ofthemostsimpleaswellasofthemostsublimeeloquence,couldbetheauthors,eitherofthese,orofthegreaterpartoftheotherStoicalparadoxes,whichareingeneralmereimpertinentquibbles,anddosolittlehonourtotheirsystemthatIshallgivenofurtheraccountofthem。IamdisposedtoimputethemrathertoChrysippus,thediscipleandfollower,indeed,ofZenoandCleanthes,butwho,fromallthathasbeendelivereddowntousconcerninghim,seemstohavebeenameredialecticalpedant,withouttasteoreleganceofanykind。
  Hemayhavebeenthefirstwhoreducedtheirdoctrinesintoascholasticortechnicalsystemofartificialdefinitions,divisions,andsubdivisions;oneofthemosteffectualexpedients,perhaps,forextinguishingwhateverdegreeofgoodsensetheremaybeinanymoralormetaphysicaldoctrine。Suchamanmayveryeasilybesupposedtohaveunderstoodtooliterallysomeanimatedexpressionsofhismastersindescribingthehappinessofthemanofperfectvirtue,andtheunhappinessofwhoeverfellshortofthatcharacter。
  TheStoicsingeneralseemtohaveadmittedthattheremightbeadegreeofproficiencyinthosewhohadnotadvancedtoperfectvirtueandhappiness。Theydistributedthoseproficientsintodifferentclasses,accordingtothedegreeoftheiradvancement;andtheycalledtheimperfectvirtueswhichtheysupposedthemcapableofexercising,notrectitudes,butproprieties,fitnesses,decentandbecomingactions,forwhichaplausibleorprobablereasoncouldbeassigned,whatCiceroexpressesbytheLatinwordofficia,andSeneca,Ithinkmoreexactly,bythatofconvenientia。Thedoctrineofthoseimperfect,butattainablevirtues,seemstohaveconstitutedwhatwemaycallthepracticalmoralityoftheStoics。ItisthesubjectofCicero’sOffices;andissaidtohavebeenthatofanotherbookwrittenbyMarcusBrutus,butwhichisnowlost。
  TheplanandsystemwhichNaturehassketchedoutforourconduct,seemstobealtogetherdifferentfromthatoftheStoicalphilosophy。
  ByNaturetheeventswhichimmediatelyaffectthatlittledepartmentinwhichweourselveshavesomelittlemanagementanddirection,whichimmediatelyaffectourselves,ourfriends,ourcountry,aretheeventswhichinterestusthemost,andwhichchieflyexciteourdesiresandaversions,ourhopesandfears,ourjoysandsorrows。Shouldthosepassionsbe,whattheyareveryapttobe,toovehement,Naturehasprovidedaproperremedyandcorrection。Therealoreventheimaginarypresenceoftheimpartialspectator,theauthorityofthemanwithinthebreast,isalwaysathandtooverawethemintothepropertoneandtemperofmoderation。
  If,notwithstandingourmostfaithfulexertions,alltheeventswhichcanaffectthislittledepartment,shouldturnoutthemostunfortunateanddisastrous,Naturehasbynomeansleftuswithoutconsolation。Thatconsolationmaybedrawn,notonlyfromthecompleteapprobationofthemanwithinthebreast,but,ifpossible,fromastillnoblerandmoregenerousprinciple,fromafirmrelianceupon,andareverentialsubmissionto,thatbenevolentwisdomwhichdirectsalltheeventsofhumanlife,andwhich,wemaybeassured,wouldneverhavesufferedthosemisfortunestohappen,hadtheynotbeenindispensablynecessaryforthegoodofthewhole。
  Naturehasnotprescribedtousthissublimecontemplationasthegreatbusinessandoccupationofourlives。Sheonlypointsitouttousastheconsolationofourmisfortunes。TheStoicalphilosophyprescribesitasthegreatbusinessandoccupationofourlives。Thatphilosophyteachesustointerestourselvesearnestlyandanxiouslyinnoevents,externaltothegoodorderofourownminds,totheproprietyofourownchoosingandrejecting,exceptinthosewhichconcernadepartmentwhereweneitherhavenoroughttohaveanysortofmanagementordirection,thedepartmentofthegreatSuperintendantoftheuniverse。Bytheperfectapathywhichitprescribestous,byendeavouring,notmerelytomoderate,buttoeradicateallourprivate,partial,andselfishaffections,bysufferingustofeelforwhatevercanbefallourselves,ourfriends,ourcountry,noteventhesympatheticandreducedpassionsoftheimpartialspectator,itendeavourstorenderusaltogetherindifferentandunconcernedinthesuccessormiscarriageofeverythingwhichNaturehasprescribedtousastheproperbusinessandoccupationofourlives。
  Thereasoningsofphilosophy,itmaybesaid,thoughtheymayconfoundandperplextheunderstanding,canneverbreakdownthenecessaryconnectionwhichNaturehasestablishedbetweencausesandtheireffects。Thecauseswhichnaturallyexciteourdesiresandaversions,ourhopesandfears,ourjoysandsorrows,wouldnodoubt,notwithstandingallthereasoningsofStoicism,produceuponeachindividual,accordingtothedegreeofhisactualsensibility,theirproperandnecessaryeffects。Thejudgmentsofthemanwithinthebreast,however,mightbeagooddealaffectedbythosereasonings,andthatgreatinmatemightbetaughtbythemtoattempttooveraweallourprivate,partial,andselfishaffectionsintoamoreorlessperfecttranquillity。Todirectthejudgmentsofthisinmateisthegreatpurposeofallsystemsofmorality。ThattheStoicalphilosophyhadverygreatinfluenceuponthecharacterandconductofitsfollowers,cannotbedoubted;andthatthoughitmightsometimesincitethemtounnecessaryviolence,itsgeneraltendencywastoanimatethemtoactionsofthemostheroicmagnanimityandmostextensivebenevolence。
  IV。Besidestheseancient,therearesomemodernsystems,accordingtowhichvirtueconsistsinpropriety;orinthesuitablenessoftheaffectionfromwhichweact,tothecauseorobjectwhichexcitesit。ThesystemofDrClark,whichplacesvirtueinactingaccordingtotherelationsofthings,inregulatingourconductaccordingtothefitnessorincongruitywhichtheremaybeintheapplicationofcertainactionstocertainthings,ortocertainrelations:thatofMrWoollaston,whichplacesitinactingaccordingtothetruthofthings,accordingtotheirpropernatureandessence,orintreatingthemaswhattheyreallyare,andnotaswhattheyarenot:thatofmyLordShaftesbury,whichplacesitinmaintainingaproperbalanceoftheaffections,andinallowingnopassiontogobeyonditspropersphere;areallofthemmoreorlessinaccuratedescriptionsofthesamefundamentalidea。
  Noneofthosesystemseithergive,orevenpretendtogive,anypreciseordistinctmeasurebywhichthisfitnessorproprietyofaffectioncanbeascertainedorjudgedof。Thatpreciseanddistinctmeasurecanbefoundnowherebutinthesympatheticfeelingsoftheimpartialandwell-informedspectator。
  Thedescriptionofvirtue,besides,whichiseithergiven,oratleastmeantandintendedtobegivenineachofthosesystems,forsomeofthemodernauthorsarenotveryfortunateintheirmannerofexpressingthemselves,isnodoubtquitejust,sofarasitgoes。Thereisnovirtuewithoutpropriety,andwhereverthereisproprietysomedegreeofapprobationisdue。Butstillthisdescriptionisimperfect。Forthoughproprietyisanessentialingredientineveryvirtuousaction,itisnotalwaysthesoleingredient。Beneficentactionshaveinthemanotherqualitybywhichtheyappearnotonlytodeserveapprobationbutrecompense。Noneofthosesystemsaccounteithereasilyorsufficientlyforthatsuperiordegreeofesteemwhichseemsduetosuchactions,orforthatdiversityofsentimentwhichtheynaturallyexcite。Neitheristhedescriptionofvicemorecomplete。For,inthesamemanner,thoughimproprietyisanecessaryingredientineveryviciousaction,itisnotalwaysthesoleingredient;andthereisoftenthehighestdegreeofabsurdityandimproprietyinveryharmlessandinsignificantactions。Deliberateactions,ofapernicioustendencytothosewelivewith,have,besidestheirimpropriety,apeculiarqualityoftheirownbywhichtheyappeartodeserve,notonlydisapprobation,butpunishment;andtobetheobjects,notofdislikemerely,butofresentmentandrevenge:andnoneofthosesystemseasilyandsufficientlyaccountforthatsuperiordegreeofdetestationwhichwefeelforsuchactions。
  OfthoseSystemswhichmakeVirtueconsistinPrudenceThemostancientofthosesystemswhichmakevirtueconsistinprudence,andofwhichanyconsiderableremainshavecomedowntous,isthatofEpicurus,whoissaid,however,tohaveborrowedalltheleadingprinciplesofhisphilosophyfromsomeofthosewhohadgonebeforehim,particularlyfromAristippus;
  thoughitisveryprobable,notwithstandingthisallegationofhisenemies,thatatleasthismannerofapplyingthoseprincipleswasaltogetherhisown。
  AccordingtoEpicurus,9*bodilypleasureandpainwerethesoleultimateobjectsofnaturaldesireandaversion。Thattheywerealwaysthenaturalobjectsofthosepassions,hethoughtrequirednoproof。Pleasuremight,indeed,appearsometimestobeavoided;not,however,becauseitwaspleasure,butbecause,bytheenjoymentofit,weshouldeitherforfeitsomegreaterpleasure,orexposeourselvestosomepainthatwasmoretobeavoidedthanthispleasurewastobedesired。Pain,inthesamemanner,mightappearsometimestobeeligible;not,however,becauseitwaspain,butbecausebyenduringitwemighteitheravoidastillgreaterpain,oracquiresomepleasureofmuchmoreimportance。Thatbodilypainandpleasure,therefore,werealwaysthenaturalobjectsofdesireandaversion,was,hethought,abundantlyevident。Norwasitlessso,heimagined,thattheywerethesoleultimateobjectsofthosepassions。Whateverelsewaseitherdesiredoravoided,wasso,accordingtohim,uponaccountofitstendencytoproduceoneorotherofthosesensations。Thetendencytoprocurepleasurerenderedpowerandrichesdesirable,asthecontrarytendencytoproducepainmadepovertyandinsignificancytheobjectsofaversion。Honourandreputationwerevalued,becausetheesteemandloveofthosewelivewithwereofthegreatestconsequencebothtoprocurepleasureandtodefendusfrompain。Ignominyandbadfame,onthecontrary,weretobeavoided,becausethehatred,contemptandresentmentofthosewelivedwith,destroyedallsecurity,andnecessarilyexposedustothegreatestbodilyevils。