Itistobeobserved，however，thatwheneversuchpromisesareviolated，thoughforthemostnecessaryreasons，itisalwayswithsomedegreeofdishonourtothepersonwhomadethem。Aftertheyaremade，wemaybeconvincedoftheimproprietyofobservingthem。Butstillthereissomefaultinhavingmadethem。Itisatleastadeparturefromthehighestandnoblestmaximsofmagnanimityandhonour。Abravemanoughttodie，ratherthanmakeapromisewhichhecanneitherkeepwithoutfolly，norviolatewithoutignominy。Forsomedegreeofignominyalwaysattendsasituationofthiskind。Treacheryandfalsehoodarevicessodangerous，sodreadful，and，atthesametime，suchasmaysoeasily，and，uponmanyoccasions，sosafelybeindulged，thatwearemorejealousofthemthanofalmostanyother。Ourimaginationthereforeattachestheideaofshametoallviolationsoffaith，ineverycircumstanceandineverysituation。Theyresemble，inthisrespect，theviolationsofchastityinthefairsex，avirtueofwhich，forthelikereasons，weareexcessivelyjealous；andoursentimentsarenotmoredelicatewithregardtotheone，thanwithregardtotheother。Breachofchastitydishonoursirretrievably。Nocircumstances，nosolicitationcanexcuseit；nosorrow，norepentanceatoneforit。Wearesoniceinthisrespectthatevenarapedishonours，andtheinnocenceofthemindcannot，inourimagination，washoutthepollutionofthebody。Itisthesamecasewiththeviolationoffaith，whenithasbeensolemnlypledged，eventothemostworthlessofmankind。Fidelityissonecessaryavirtue，thatweapprehenditingeneraltobedueeventothosetowhomnothingelseisdue，andwhomwethinkitlawfultokillanddestroy。Itistonopurposethatthepersonwhohasbeenguiltyofthebreachofit，urgesthathepromisedinordertosavehislife，andthathebrokehispromisebecauseitwasinconsistentwithsomeotherrespectabledutytokeepit。
　　Thesecircumstancesmayalleviate，butcannotentirelywipeouthisdishonour。Heappearstohavebeenguiltyofanactionwithwhich，intheimaginationsofmen，somedegreeofshameisinseparablyconnected。Hehasbrokeapromisewhichhehadsolemnlyaverredhewouldmaintain；andhischaracter，ifnotirretrievablystainedandpolluted，hasatleastaridiculeaffixedtoit，whichitwillbeverydifficultentirelytoefface；andnoman，Iimagine，whohadgonethroughanadventureofthiskindwouldbefondoftellingthestory。
　　Thisinstancemayservetoshowwhereinconsiststhedifferencebetweencasuistryandjurisprudence，evenwhenbothofthemconsidertheobligationsofthegeneralrulesofjustice。
　　Butthoughthisdifferenceberealandessential，thoughthosetwosciencesproposequitedifferentends，thesamenessofthesubjecthasmadesuchasimilaritybetweenthem，thatthegreaterpartofauthorswhoseprofesseddesignwastotreatofjurisprudence，havedeterminedthedifferentquestionstheyexamine，sometimesaccordingtotheprinciplesofthatscience，andsometimesaccordingtothoseofcasuistry，withoutdistinguishing，and，perhaps，withoutbeingthemselvesawarewhentheydidtheone，andwhentheother。
　　Thedoctrineofthecasuists，however，isbynomeansconfinedtotheconsiderationofwhataconscientiousregardtothegeneralrulesofjusticewoulddemandofus。ItembracesmanyotherpartsofChristianandmoralduty。Whatseemsprincipallytohavegivenoccasiontothecultivationofthisspeciesofsciencewasthecustomofauricularconfession，introducedbytheRomanCatholicsuperstition，intimesofbarbarismandignorance。
　　Bythatinstitution，themostsecretactions，andeventhethoughtsofeveryperson，whichcouldbesuspectedofrecedinginthesmallestdegreefromtherulesofChristianpurity，weretoberevealedtotheconfessor。Theconfessorinformedhispenitentswhether，andinwhatrespecttheyhadviolatedtheirduty，andwhatpenanceitbehovedthemtoundergo，beforehecouldabsolvetheminthenameoftheoffendedDeity。
　　Theconsciousness，oreventhesuspicionofhavingdonewrong，isaloaduponeverymind，andisaccompaniedwithanxietyandterrorinallthosewhoarenothardenedbylonghabitsofiniquity。Men，inthis，asinallotherdistresses，arenaturallyeagertodisburthenthemselvesoftheoppressionwhichtheyfeelupontheirthoughts，byunbosomingtheagonyoftheirmindtosomepersonwhosesecrecyanddiscretiontheycanconfidein。Theshame，whichtheysufferfromthisacknowledgment，isfullycompensatedbythatdeviationoftheiruneasinesswhichthesympathyoftheirconfidentseldomfailstooccasion。Itrelievesthemtofindthattheyarenotaltogetherunworthyofregard，andthathowevertheirpastconductmaybecensured，theirpresentdispositionisatleastapprovedof，andisperhapssufficienttocompensatetheother，atleasttomaintaintheminsomedegreeofesteemwiththeirfriend。Anumerousandartfulclergyhad，inthosetimesofsuperstition，insinuatedthemselvesintotheconfidenceofalmosteveryprivatefamily。Theypossessedallthelittlelearningwhichthetimescouldafford，andtheirmanners，thoughinmanyrespectsrudeanddisorderly，werepolishedandregularcomparedwiththoseoftheagetheylivedin。Theywereregarded，therefore，notonlyasthegreatdirectorsofallreligious，butofallmoralduties。Theirfamiliaritygavereputationtowhoeverwassohappyastopossessit，andeverymarkoftheirdisapprobationstampedthedeepestignominyuponallwhohadthemisfortunetofallunderit。Beingconsideredasthegreatjudgesofrightandwrong，theywerenaturallyconsultedaboutallscruplesthatoccurred，anditwasreputableforanypersontohaveitknownthathemadethoseholymentheconfidentsofallsuchsecrets，andtooknoimportantordelicatestepinhisconductwithouttheiradviceandapprobation。Itwasnotdifficultfortheclergy，therefore，togetitestablishedasageneralrule，thattheyshouldbeentrustedwithwhatithadalreadybecomefashionabletoentrustthem，andwithwhattheygenerallywouldhavebeenentrusted，thoughnosuchrulehadbeenestablished。Toqualifythemselvesforconfessorsbecamethusanecessarypartofthestudyofchurchmenanddivines，andtheywerethenceledtocollectwhatarecalledcasesofconscience，niceanddelicatesituationsinwhichitishardtodeterminewhereaboutstheproprietyofconductmaylie。Suchworks，theyimagined，mightbeofusebothtothedirectorsofconsciencesandtothosewhoweretobedirected；andhencetheoriginofbooksofcasuistry。
　　Themoraldutieswhichfellundertheconsiderationofthecasuistswerechieflythosewhichcan，insomemeasureatleast，becircumscribedwithingeneralrules，andofwhichtheviolationisnaturallyattendedwithsomedegreeofremorseandsomedreadofsufferingpunishment。Thedesignofthatinstitutionwhichgaveoccasiontotheirworks，wastoappeasethoseterrorsofconsciencewhichattendupontheinfringementofsuchduties。Butitisnoteveryvirtueofwhichthedefectisaccompaniedwithanyveryseverecompunctionsofthiskind，andnomanappliestohisconfessorforabsolution，becausehedidnotperformthemostgenerous，themostfriendly，orthemostmagnanimousactionwhich，inhiscircumstances，itwaspossibletoperform。Infailuresofthiskind，therulethatisviolatediscommonlynotverydeterminate，andisgenerallyofsuchanaturetoo，thatthoughtheobservanceofitmightentitletohonourandreward，theviolationseemstoexposetonopositiveblame，censure，orpunishment。Theexerciseofsuchvirtuesthecasuistsseemtohaveregardedasasortofworksofsupererogation，whichcouldnotbeverystrictlyexacted，andwhichitwasthereforeunnecessaryforthemtotreatof。
　　Thebreachesofmoralduty，therefore，whichcamebeforethetribunaloftheconfessor，anduponthataccountfellunderthecognizanceofthecasuists，werechieflyofthreedifferentkinds。
　　Firstandprincipally，breachesoftherulesofjustice。Theruleshereareallexpressandpositive，andtheviolationofthemisnaturallyattendedwiththeconsciousnessofdeserving，andthedreadofsufferingpunishmentbothfromGodandman。
　　Secondly，breachesoftherulesofchastity。Theseinallgrosserinstancesarerealbreachesoftherulesofjustice，andnopersoncanbeguiltyofthemwithoutdoingthemostunpardonableinjurytosomeother。Insmallerinstances，whentheyamountonlytoaviolationofthoseexactdecorumswhichoughttobeobservedintheconversationofthetwosexes，theycannotindeedjustlybeconsideredasviolationsoftherulesofjustice。Theyaregenerally，however，violationsofaprettyplainrule，and，atleastinoneofthesexes，tendtobringignominyuponthepersonwhohasbeenguiltyofthem，andconsequentlytobeattendedinthescrupulouswithsomedegreeofshameandcontritionofmind。
　　Thirdly，breachesoftherulesofveracity。Theviolationoftruth，itistobeobserved，isnotalwaysabreachofjustice，thoughitissouponmanyoccasions，andconsequentlycannotalwaysexposetoanyexternalpunishment。Theviceofcommonlying，thoughamostmiserablemeanness，mayfrequentlydohurttonobody，andinthiscasenoclaimofvengeanceorsatisfactioncanbedueeithertothepersonsimposedupon，ortoothers。Butthoughtheviolationoftruthisnotalwaysabreachofjustice，itisalwaysabreachofaveryplainrule，andwhatnaturallytendstocoverwithshamethepersonwhohasbeenguiltyofit。
　　Thereseemstobeinyoungchildrenaninstinctivedispositiontobelievewhatevertheyaretold。Natureseemstohavejudgeditnecessaryfortheirpreservationthattheyshould，forsometimeatleast，putimplicitconfidenceinthosetowhomthecareoftheirchildhood，andoftheearliestandmostnecessarypartsoftheireducation，isintrusted。Theircredulity，accordingly，isexcessive，anditrequireslongandmuchexperienceofthefalsehoodofmankindtoreducethemtoareasonabledegreeofdiffidenceanddistrust。Ingrown-uppeoplethedegreesofcredulityare，nodoubt，verydifferent。Thewisestandmostexperiencedaregenerallytheleastcredulous。
　　Butthemanscarceliveswhoisnotmorecredulousthanheoughttobe，andwhodoesnot，uponmanyoccasions，givecredittotales，whichnotonlyturnouttobeperfectlyfalse，butwhichaverymoderatedegreeofreflectionandattentionmighthavetaughthimcouldnotwellbetrue。Thenaturaldispositionisalwaystobelieve。Itisacquiredwisdomandexperienceonlythatteachincredulity，andtheyveryseldomteachitenough。Thewisestandmostcautiousofusallfrequentlygivescredittostorieswhichhehimselfisafterwardsbothashamedandastonishedthathecouldpossiblythinkofbelieving。
　　Themanwhomwebelieveisnecessarily，inthethingsconcerningwhichwebelievehim，ourleaderanddirector，andwelookuptohimwithacertaindegreeofesteemandrespect。Butasfromadmiringotherpeoplewecometowishtobeadmiredourselves；sofrombeingledanddirectedbyotherpeoplewelearntowishtobecomeourselvesleadersanddirectors。Andaswecannotalwaysbesatisfiedmerelywithbeingadmired，unlesswecanatthesametimepersuadeourselvesthatweareinsomedegreereallyworthyofadmiration；sowecannotalwaysbesatisfiedmerelywithbeingbelieved，unlessweareatthesametimeconsciousthatwearereallyworthyofbelief。Asthedesireofpraiseandthatofpraise-worthiness，thoughverymucha-kin，areyetdistinctandseparatedesires；sothedesireofbeingbelievedandthatofbeingworthyofbelief，thoughverymucha-kintoo，areequallydistinctandseparatedesires。
　　Thedesireofbeingbelieved，thedesireofpersuading，ofleadinganddirectingotherpeople，seemstobeoneofthestrongestofallournaturaldesires。Itis，perhaps，theinstinctuponwhichisfoundedthefacultyofspeech，thecharacteristicalfacultyofhumannature。Nootheranimalpossessesthisfaculty，andwecannotdiscoverinanyotheranimalanydesiretoleadanddirectthejudgmentandconductofitsfellows。Greatambition，thedesireofrealsuperiority，ofleadinganddirecting，seemstobealtogetherpeculiartoman，andspeechisthegreatinstrumentofambition，ofrealsuperiority，ofleadinganddirectingthejudgmentsandconductofotherpeople。