PrehistoricspoonandbuttonfoundinalakestationatSutzSwitzerland。
　　Althoughthepile-dwellingsofSwitzerlandandoftheTERREMARESofItalywouldappeartohavebeeninthemselvesprotectionenough，theirinhabitantsdidnotneglectothermeansofdefence，fromwhichwemaygatherthattheywereengagedinconstantandterriblestruggles。TheTERREMARESweregenerallysurroundedbyatalusorrampartofearth，withanexternalfossewhichprotectedtheapproachestothedwellings。TherampartofCastioneParma，whichdatesfromtheBronzeage，wasevenstrengthenedinsidewithlargetimbercaissons。[223]InSwitzerland，someworksrecentlyundertakentodeflectthecourseoftheAar，onitsexitfromLakeBienne，haveledtothediscoveryofavillageoftheStoneage，withthebridgesleadingtoitandthelittlefortsintendedtoprotectit。[224]Ashavetheneighboringsettlements，thisstationhasyieldedagreatmanyarrows，hatchets，scrapers，andharpoons。Wegiveanillustrationofacuriousmarrowspoon，andofaroundobjectwhichseemstohavebeenabuttonFig。84，astheymarktheprogressmade。
　　GreatBritainisintersectedbylinesoffortificationsofunknownorigin，butcertainlyofextremeantiquity。WemaymentionDane’sDyke，Wandyke，theDevil’sDykeatNewmarket，andOffa’sDyke，runningfromtheBristolChanneltotheDee，anddividingEnglandfromWales。Ancientcampsandintrenchments，SirJohnLubbocktellsus，crownthegreaternumberofthehillsofEngland。GeneralPitt-RiversexploredseveralofthesecampsinthecountyofSussex。Manyextendoverconsiderableareas，andallcontainnumerousworkedflintsandotherrelicsofprehistoricindustry。Theserelicsaremetwithingreatnumbersatthebaseoftheintrenchments，sothatwemayjustlyconcludethattheydatefromthesameepoch。
　　ThemostcelebratedofthesecampsisthatofCissbury，threemilesnorthofWorthing。WemayalsomentionthatofHod-HillinDorsetshire，whichgreatlyresemblestheoneatCissbury，butwewilldescribethelatterinsomedetail。[225]Itissituatedonasomewhatloftyplateauofirregularform，itssitehavingbeenchosenwithgreatskillasoneofferinggreatfacilitiesfordefence。Theearthenrampartsandthefossesprotectingthemcoveranareaofsixtyacres，andtheirimportancevariesaccordingtothereliefoftheground；thusthethicknessofthewallsisverymuchgreaterontheeasternsidewhereanattackwouldhavebeenmostfraughtwithdanger；fourdoorsgiveaccesstotheinterior，andoneachsideofthesedoorsareruinsofrectangularstructuresstrengtheningtheirdefence。Archaeologists，however，areofopinionthattheseredoubts，thoughtheirconstructionisexactlysimilartotherestofthefortifications，areofmorerecentdate。InfactRomantileshavebeenfoundamongsttheruins，butthesereallyprovenothing，aseveryoneisagreedthatCissburywasoccupiedbytheRomansafterthesubjugationofEnglandbythem；
　　andtheonlypointatissueisreallywhetherthewallsofwhichtheruinsstillremaindatefromtheRomanperiod，orfromtimespriortotheirarrival。Weourselvesleantothelatteropinion，asdrinking-waterisabsolutelywanting；averyimportantpoint，astheRomangeneralsalwaysmadeittheirfirstcaretopitchtheircampsnearagoodwater-supply。OnthewesternslopeatCissburyoneachsideoftherampartsarefiftyfunnel-shapeddepressions，someofwhichareasmuchasseventyfeetindiameterandtwelvefeetdeep。Theseholesmayhaveservedasrefuges，andthelargeroneswerecertainlylivedin，asisprovedbythecharredstonesofthehearthsandthepiecesofcharcoalfoundnearthem；moreover，Tacitus[226]
　　tellsusthattheGermanslivedinsimilarhabitations。Whatever，however，mayhavebeentheirultimateuse，thesehollowswereinthefirstplacedugoutwithaviewtoobtainingflintsinthemarlychalkformingthebill；andrecentexcavationshaverevealedtheexistenceofgalleriesconnectingthedepressions。Whentheybecamelaterhumanhabitationssomeoftheinsideopeningswereblockedupwithlumpsofchalk，carefullypiledupsoastomakeentranceextremelydifficult，greatlyaddingtothesecurityoftheinmates。
　　Thirtyoftheseshaftswereexcavatedinsuccession；andamongsttherubbishofallkindswithwhichtheywerefilledwerefoundsomewellcutcelts，showingnotraceofpolish，andsomeweaponsortoolsoftheMousterientype。Thenumberofhalf-finishedimplements，andtheevengreaterquantityofchips，pointstotheseshaftshavingformedacentreofmanufacture。Manyoftheimplementsweremadeofstag-horn，andamongstthemwemustmentionsomepickswhich，curiouslyenough，exactlyresemblethoseofBelgiumandthesouthofFrance。[227]
　　SimilarwoodenpicksarefoundinthecopperminesoftheAsturias，inthesaltminesofSalzburg，andinapetroleumwellrecentlyopenedonthefrontierbetweentheUnitedStatesandCanada。Inalltheselocalitiestracescanbemadeoutofancientminingoperations。ButtoreturntoCissbury：fromamongsttheprehistoricruinstherewerealsotaken，numerousfragmentsofpottery，notatalllikeRomanware，withthebonesofthehorse，goat，boar，andox，allstillrepresentedinthefaunaofEngland；withoyster-shells，andtheshellsofbothlandandseamollusca，ofspeciesstilltobefoundinGreatBritain。Butnotracehassofarbeendiscoveredofmetals，andneithertheflintimplementsnorthebonesofanimalshaveanyofthemarksofrustsocharacteristicoftheBronzeandIronages。Mustwenotthenconcludethattheseshaftsweresunkatatimelongpriortotheearliesthistoricperiod？
　　ThewallsofthesubterraneangalleriesofCissburyborenotonlycup-shapedornaments，strive，andcurvedorbrokenlines，recallingthoseonthemegalithicmonumentsofScotlandandIreland；butParkHarrisonhasmadeoutsomeregularRUNES，orwrittencharacters，ofwhichareproductionwasshownattheParisExhibitionin1878。Thislastfactisthemorecurious，asSaycediscoveredinapassagegivingaccesstoacavenearSyracusesomecharacterssomewhatsimilarinform，towhichheassignsaproto-Phoenicianorigin。WemayaddthatcertaincharactersmadeoutatCissbury，differingbutlittlefromthemodernletterBorthefigure6，arealsofoundinthemostancientPalmyrian，Copt，andSyrianalphabets。Werethisfactcompletelyestablished，stillmore，ifitwerecorroboratedbyotheranalogousfacts，weshouldinithaveaveryvaluableindicationoftherelationsofEnglandwiththemostancientknownnavigators。
　　Germanyalsocontainssomeancientfortifications，ofwhichthemostremarkablearetheHEIDENMAUERofSaintOdila，nearHermeskiel，betweentheMoselleandtheRhine。Hugestones，piledupwithoutcement，formatripleENCEINTE，butthereisnothingtoconnecttheseremainswithprehistorictimes。ItisthesamewiththeintrenchmentsintheGrandDuchyofPosen，theexistenceofwhichwasannouncedatameetingoftheAnthropologicalSocietyofBerlin。[228]Manyofthesedefensiveworks，notablythoseofPotzrowandofZabnow，badbeenerectedonpiles。InthedistrictbetweenThornandtheBalticarenumerousmoundsoftheshapeofatruncatedcone，theplatformofwhichissurroundedbyanembankmentsome590feetindiameter。[229]Nearmanyofthesewerepickedupmanybrokenhumanbones，mixedtogetherinthegreatestconfusionwithweapon，hatchets，andhammers，resemblingNeolithictypes。Everythingbearswitnesstothestrugglesofwhichthesemoundswerethescene。
　　SimilarreliesofapaststillobscurearemetwithinthesouthofEurope。CartailhachasbroughtintonoticetheCITANIAS，whicharestrangefortifiedtownsinPortugal。OntheplateauofMouinho-da-Moura，southwestofLisbon，werefoundnumerouspolishedhatchets，associatedwithshellsofmarinemolluscaandthebonesofmammalsbelongingtospeciesstillextant。[230]Thisstationwasprotectedbyintrenchmentsofsogreatanextentthatithasbeenimpossibletoexaminethewholeofthem。Therearealsonearthesameplaceseveralcaves，nownearlychokedup。Oneofthemwasoriginallyaregulartunnel；thecuttingleadingtotheentrancewasmadeofearthandsmallstones；itcontainedthebonesofanimals，somecinders，andfourlargevasesofcoarseworkmanship。Itisdifficulttomakeoutwhatthiscavewasusedfor，thegreatconfusioninwhichtheboneslayexcludingallideaofitshavingbeenatomb。RibeirohadalreadymadeoutatLyceaanintrenchedcampprotectedbyclumsilyconstructedwalls。InsidetheENCEINTEhepickedupnumerousfragmentsofornamentedpottery，withpolishedhatchets，shells，andagoodmanybonesofanimals。Healsomadeoutseveralsepulchres。[231]
　　GeneralviewofthestationofFuente-Alamo。
　　TheprehistoricstationofLAMUELADECHERTinMaeztragoremindsusofthoseofPortugal。Itissituatedonalittleeminence，protectedonthenorthandeastbythenaturalescarpmentoftheplateau，andonothersidesbyawallofsomeheightmadeofstoneswithoutmortar。Somefoundationsofanovalshape，onwhichdoubtlesswerebuiltthehomesoftheinhabitants，canbemadeoutinthemiddleoftheENCEINTE。Wecan，however，butrepeatherewhatwehavesaidsooftenelsewhere，thatitisimpossibletofixtheexactdateatwhichtheseintrenchmentsweremade。Thediscovery，however，ofpolishedflinthatchets，dioritelance-heads，andafewbonesofruminantsandcerviaeunknowninSpaininprehistorictimes，wouldappeartopointtoaveryconsiderableantiquity。Lastly，twoyoungBelgianengineers[232]havelatelymadeoutbetweenAlmeriaandCarthagenaaconsiderablenumberofprehistoricstationsinwhichcanbetracedsuccessivelythedifferentStoneagesandthoseofCopperandofBronze。SeveralofthesestationsFig。85areregularfortifiedcamps，protectedbythickstonewallscementedwithathinlayerofclay。Thefirewhichdestroyedthehabitationshasleftbehind，beneaththeashesandcinders，numerousobjects，withtheaidofwhichweareabletoformapictureofthelifeledbythemenwhobuiltthefortifications，andweknowthattheywereagriculturists，fortheverystoresofgrainhavebeenfoundcharredandagglutinatedbyfire。Inthemorerecentstationsflint，whichwasintheearliesttimetheonematerialused，hasdisappearedandisreplacedbythecopper，ofwhichaplentifulsupplywasfoundintherichminesriddlingthemountains。Excavationshaveevenbroughttolighttheworkshopofthemetallurgist，withitsmouldsandvasesconvertedintocrucibles，itsessaysatnewforms，itsscoriae，andlastlyitsfinishedweapons，showingrealskillintheirproduction。
　　Althoughitisimpossibletoassigntothemadefinitedate，wemust，tomakethispartofourworkcomplete，sayafewwordsontheearthworksmetwithinRoumania。Aformerministerofthatprincipality，M。Odobesco，[233]classesthemasVALLA，TUMULI，andCETATIDEPAMENTUorcitadels。
　　TheVALLAincludeimportantworks。OneofthemcutsacrossValachieparallelwiththeDanubeandlosesitselfinSouthernRussia。AnothercrossesthenorthofMoldaviaandBessarabia，followingadirectionconvergentwiththeformer。TheseVALLA，althoughtheyareknowninthecountryinwhichtheyoccurasFOSSESDETRAJAN，arecertainlyofearlierdatethantheRomanoccupation，andinfactRomanroadscutacrosstheintrenchmentsorfosseswhichhavebeenlevelledorcoveredovertomakewayforthem。Excavationsofthelargetumuliarenotyetsufficientlyadvancedforustohazardanopinionaboutthem。Thesmallerones，however，areseldomofRomanorigin。Thefuneralvasesofcalcareousstonewhichtheycontainbearwitnessclearlyenoughtotheirdestination，andalsototheritewithwhichtheywereconnected。
　　TheCETATIDEPAMENTUareregularearthenfortificationssetupwithinshortdistancesofeachotheronalltheheightsoverlookingthetorrentialriversofRoumania。Theseintrenchments，generallyofroundorovalform，areprotectedbydeepfosses，parapets，andpalisades。Massesofcindersandburntearthbearunmistakableevidencetothecauseoftheirdestruction。Allabout，excavationshavebroughttolightcoarsepottery，grindstonesforcrushinggrain，storesofmilletwhichhadbeendamagedbytheflames，andafewprimitivelyconstructedbronzeidols。WhenthevanquishedRoumaniansweredrivenfromtheirintrenchments，theyhadevidentlylearnedtousebronze，butwerestill，aswehavealreadyremarked，unacquaintedwithiron，asnoobjectinthatmaterialhasbeenfound，nordoesanythingbearanytraceofrust。
　　Thus，throughoutEurope，man，inthepresenceofthemanydangerssurroundinghim，endeavoredintheveryearliesttimestoprotectbysimilarmeanshisfamily，hisflocks，andhiswealth。InAmericaweareabletoquotefactsofevenmoreimportance。ThevastterritorycomprisedbetweentheAlleghaniesandtheRockyMountains，betweenthegreatlakesofCanadaandtheGulfofMexico，isintersectedwithtrulycolossalfortifications，almostallofthemmadeentirelyofearth。TheancientAmericansknewhowtoprotecteveryheightandeverydeltaformedbythejunctionoftworiverswithredoubts，walls，parapets，fosses，andcircumvallations。Notwithoutastonishmentwemakeoutaregularsystemoffortressesconnectedwitheachotherbydeeptrenchesandsecretpassages，someofthemhewnoutbeneaththebedsofrivers，observatoriesontheheights，andconcentricwalls，someactuallystrengthenedwithcasematesprotectingtheentrances。Alltheseworkswereconstructedbytheso-calledMound-Builders，ofwhoseancestorsorofwhosedescendantsabsolutelynothingisknown。
　　AllthestrongholdsoftheMound-Buildersrisenearabundantwatercourses，andthebestproofthatcanbegivenoftheintelligencewhichguidedtheirconstructorsintheirchoiceofsites，isthefactofthenumberofflourishingcitiessuchasNewark，Portsmouth，Cincinnati，SaintLouis，Frankfort，andNew-Madrid，etc。，whichwerebuiltupontheruinsofvariousearthworks。
　　ItwouldtakeustoolongmerelytoenumeratealltheancientfortificationsstillexistinginNorthAmerica。Moreovertheyallresembleeachothersomuchthatthedescriptionofafewofthemisreallyallthatisneededtoprovetheirimportance。