Therefore，thegreaterthisproduct，thelessishehimself.Theexternalization[Entausserung]oftheworkerinhisproductmeansnotonlythathislaborbecomesanobject，anexternalexistence，butthatitexistsoutsidehim，independentlyofhimandalientohim，andbeingstoconfronthimasanautonomouspower;thatthelifewhichhehasbestowedontheobjectconfrontshimashostileandalien.
　　Letusnottakeacloserlookatobjectification，attheproductionoftheworker，andtheestrangement，thelossoftheobjet，ofhisproduct，thatthisentails.
　　Theworkerscancreatenothingwithoutnature，withoutthesensuousexternalworld.Itisthematerialinwhichhislaborrealizesitself，inwhichitisactiveandfromwhich，andbymeansofwhich，itproduces.
　　Butjustasnatureprovideslaborwiththemeansoflife，inthesenseoflaborcannotlivewithoutobjectsonwhichtoexerciseitself，soalsoitprovidesthemeansoflifeinthenarrowersense，namelythemeansofphysicalsubsistenceoftheworker.
　　Themoretheworkerappropriatestheexternalworld，sensuousnature，throughhislabor，themorehedepriveshimselfofthemeansoflifeintworespects：firstly，thesensuousexternalworldbecomeslessandlessanobjectbelongingtohislabor，ameansoflifeofhislabor;
　　and，secondly，itbecomeslessandlessameansoflifeintheimmediatesense，ameansforthephysicalsubsistenceoftheworker.
　　Inthesetworespects，then，theworkerbecomesaslaveofhisobject;firstly，inthathereceivesanobjectoflabor，i.e.，hereceiveswork，and，secondly，inthathereceivesmeansofsubsistence.
　　Firstly，then，sothathecanexistsasaworker，andsecondlyasaphysicalsubject.Theculminationofthisslaveryisthatitisonlyasaworkerthathecanmaintainhimselfasaphysicalsubjectandonlyasaphysicalsubjectthatheisaworker.
　　（Theestrangementoftheworkerinhisobjectisexpressedaccordingtothelawsofpoliticaleconomyinthefollowingway：
　　themoretheworkerproduces，thelesshehastoconsume;
　　themorevaluehecreates，themoreworthlesshebecomes;
　　themorehisproductisshaped，themoremisshapentheworker;
　　themorecivilizedhisobject，themorebarbaroustheworker;
　　themorepowerfulthework，themorepowerlesstheworker;
　　themoreintelligentthework，thedullertheworkerandthemorehebecomesaslaveofnature.）Politicaleconomyconcealstheestrangementinthenatureoflaborbyignoringthedirectrelationshipbetweentheworker（labor）andproduction.Itistruethatlaborproducesmarvelsfortherich，butitproducesprivationfortheworker.Itproducespalaces，buthovelsfortheworker.Itproducesbeauty，butdeformityfortheworker.Itreplaceslaborbymachines，butitcastssomeoftheworkersbackintobarbarousformsoflaborandturnsothersintomachines.Itproducesintelligence，butitproducesidiocyandcretinismfortheworker.
　　Thedirectrelationshipoflabortoitsproductsistherelationshipoftheworkertotheobjectsofhisproduction.Therelationshipoftherichmantotheobjectsofproductionandtoproductionitselfisonlyaconsequenceofthisfirstrelationship，andconfirmsit.Later，weshallconsiderthissecondaspect.Therefore，whenweaskwhatistheessentialrelationshipoflabor，weareaskingabouttherelationshipoftheworkertoproduction.
　　Uptonow，wehaveconsideredtheestrangement，thealienationoftheworker，onlyfromoneaspect——i.e.，hisrelationshiptotheproductsofhislabor.Butestrangementmanifestsitselfnotonlyintheresult，butalsointheactofproduction，withintheactivityofproductionitself.Howcouldtheproductoftheworker’sactivityconfronthimassomethingalienifitwerenotforthefactthatintheactofproductionhewasestranginghimselffromhimself？Afterall，theproductissimplytheresumeoftheactivity，oftheproduction.Soiftheproductoflaborisalienation，productionitselfmustbeactivealienation，thealienationofactivity，theactivityofalienation.Theestrangementoftheobjectoflabormerelysummarizestheestrangement，thealienationintheactivityoflaboritself.
　　Whatconstitutesthealienationoflabor？
　　Firstly，thefactthatlaborisexternaltotheworker——i.e.，doesnotbelongtohisessentialbeing;thathe，therefore，doesnotconfirmhimselfinhiswork，butdenieshimself，feelsmiserableandnothappy，doesnotdevelopfreementalandphysicalenergy，butmortifieshisfleshandruinshismind.Hence，theworkerfeelshimselfonlywhenheisnotworking;whenheisworking，hedoesnotfeelhimself.Heisathomewhenheisnotworking，andnotathomewhenheisworking.Hislaboris，therefore，notvoluntarybutforced，itisforcedlabor.Itis，therefore，notthesatisfactionofaneedbutameremeanstosatisfyneedsoutsideitself.Itsaliencharacterisclearlydemonstratedbythefactthatassoonasnophysicalorothercompulsionexists，itisshunnedliketheplague.Externallabor，laborinwhichmanalienateshimself，isalaborofself—sacrifice，ofmortification.Finally，theexternalcharacteroflaborfortheworkerisdemonstratedbythefactthatitbelongsnottohimbuttoanother，andthatinithebelongsnottohimselfbuttoanother.Justasinreligionthespontaneousactivityofthehumanimagination，thehumanbrain，andthehumanheart，detachesitselffromtheindividualandreappearsasthealienactivityofagodorofadevil，sotheactivityoftheworkerisnothisownspontaneousactivity.Itbelongstoanother，itisalossofhisself.
　　Theresultisthatman（theworker）feelsthatheisactingfreelyonlyinhisanimalfunctions——eating，drinking，andprocreating，oratmostinhisdwellingandadornment——whileinhishumanfunctions，heisnothingmorethananimal.
　　Itistruethateating，drinking，andprocreating，etc.，arealsogenuinehumanfunctions.However，whenabstractedfromotheraspectsofhumanactivity，andturnedintofinalandexclusiveends，theyareanimal.
　　Wehaveconsideredtheactofestrangementofpracticalhumanactivity，oflabor，fromtwoaspects：（1）therelationshipoftheworkertotheproductoflaborasanalienobjectthathaspoweroverhim.
　　Therelationshipis，atthesametime，therelationshiptothesensuousexternalworld，tonaturalobjects，asanalienworldconfrontinghim，inhostileopposition.（2）Therelationshipoflabortotheactofproductionwithinlabor.Thisrelationshipistherelationshipoftheworkertohisownactivityassomethingwhichisalienanddoesnotbelongtohim，activityaspassivity[Leiden]，powerasimpotence，procreationasemasculation，theworker’sownphysicalandmentalenergy，hispersonallife——forwhatislifebutactivity？——asanactivitydirectedagainsthimself，whichisindependentofhimanddoesnotbelongtohim.Self—estrangement，ascomparedwiththeestrangementoftheobject[Sache]mentionedabove.
　　Wenowhavetoderiveathirdfeatureofestrangedlaborfromthetwowehavealreadyexamined.
　　Manisaspecies—being，notonlybecausehepracticallyandtheoreticallymakesthespecies——bothhisownandthoseofotherthings——hisobject，butalso——andthisissimplyanotherwayofsayingthesamething——
　　becausehelooksuponhimselfasthepresent，livingspecies，becausehelooksuponhimselfasauniversalandthereforefreebeing.
　　Species—life，bothformanandforanimals，consistsphysicallyinthefactthatman，likeanimals，livesfrominorganicnature;andbecausemanismoreuniversalthananimals，sotooistheareaofinorganicnaturefromwhichhelivesmoreuniversal.Justasplants，animals，stones，air，light，etc.，theoreticallyformapartofhumanconsciousness，partlyasobjectsofscienceandpartlyasobjectsofart——hisspiritualinorganicnature，hisspiritualmeansoflife，whichhemustfirstpreparebeforehecanenjoyanddigestthem——so，too，inpracticetheyformapartofhumanlifeandhumanactivity.Inaphysicalsense，manlivesonlyfromthesenaturalproducts，whetherintheformofnourishment，heating，clothing，shelter，etc.Theuniversalityofmanmanifestsitselfinpracticeinthatuniversalitywhichmakesthewholeofnaturehisinorganicbody，（1）asadirectmeansoflifeand（2）asthematter，theobject，andthetoolofhislifeactivity.Natureisman’sinorganicbody——thatistosay，natureinsofarasitisnotthehumanbody.Manlivesfromnature——i.e.，natureishisbody——andhemustmaintainacontinuingdialoguewithitisheisnottodie.Tosaythatman’sphysicalandmentallifeislinkedtonaturesimplymeansthatnatureislinkedtoitself，formanisapartofnature.
　　Estrangedlabornotonly（1）estrangesnaturefrommanand（2）
　　estrangesmanfromhimself，fromhisownfunction，fromhisvitalactivity;
　　becauseofthis，italsoestrangesmanfromhisspecies.Itturnshisspecies—lifeintoameansforhisindividuallife.Firstly，itestrangesspecies—lifeandindividuallife，and，secondly，itturnsthelatter，initsabstractform，intothepurposeoftheformer，alsoinitsabstractandestrangedform.
　　Forinthefirstplacelabor，lifeactivity，productivelifeitself，appearstomanonlyasameansforthesatisfactionofaneed，theneedtopreservephysicalexistence.Butproductivelifeisspecies—life.Itislife—producinglife.Thewholecharacterofaspecies，itsspecies—character，residesinthenatureofitslifeactivity，andfreeconsciousactivityconstitutesthespecies—characterofman.Lifeappearsonlyasameansoflife.
　　Theanimalisimmediatelyonewithitslifeactivity.Itisnotdistinctfromthatactivity;itisthatactivity.Manmakeshislifeactivityitselfanobjectofhiswillandconsciousness.Hehasconsciouslifeactivity.
　　Itisnotadeterminationwithwhichhedirectlymerges.Consciouslifeactivitydirectlydistinguishesmanfromanimallifeactivity.Onlybecauseofthatisheaspecies—being.Or，rather，heisaconsciousbeing——i.e.，hisownlifeisanobjectforhim，onlybecauseheisaspecies—being.
　　Onlybecauseofthatishisactivityfreeactivity.Estrangedlaborreversestherelationshipsothatman，justbecauseheisaconsciousbeing，makeshislifeactivity，hisbeing[Wesen]，ameremeansforhisexistence.
　　Thepracticalcreationofanobjectiveworld，thefashioningofinorganicnature，isproofthatmanisaconsciousspecies—being——i.e.，abeingwhichtreatsthespeciesasitsownessentialbeingoritselfasaspecies—being.Itistruethatanimalsalsoproduce.Theybuildnestsanddwelling，likethebee，thebeaver，theant，etc.Buttheyproduceonlytheirownimmediateneedsorthoseoftheiryoung;theyproduceonlywhenimmediatephysicalneedcompelsthemtodoso，whilemanproducesevenwhenheisfreefromphysicalneedandtrulyproducesonlyinfreedomfromsuchneed;theyproduceonlythemselves，whilemanreproducesthewholeofnature;theirproductsbelongimmediatelytotheirphysicalbodies，whilemanfreelyconfrontshisownproduct.Animalsproduceonlyaccordingtothestandardsandneedsofthespeciestowhichtheybelong，whilemaniscapableofproducingaccordingtothestandardsofeveryspeciesandofapplyingtoeachobjectitsinherentstandard;hence，manalsoproducesinaccordancewiththelawsofbeauty.
　　Itis，therefore，inhisfashioningoftheobjectivethatmanreallyproveshimselftobeaspecies—being.Suchproductionishisactivespecies—life.Throughit，natureappearsashisworkandhisreality.
　　Theobjectoflaboris，therefore，theobjectificationofthespecies—lifeofman：formanproduceshimselfnotonlyintellectually，inhisconsciousness，butactivelyandactually，andhecanthereforecontemplatehimselfinaworldhehimselfhascreated.Intearingawaytheobjectofhisproductionfromman，estrangedlaborthereforetearsawayfromhimhisspecies—life，histruespecies—objectivity，andtransformshisadvantageoveranimalsintothedisadvantagethathisinorganicbody，nature，istakenfromhim.
　　Inthesamewayasestrangedlaborreducesspontaneousandfreeactivitytoameans，itmakesman’sspecies—lifeameansofhisphysicalexistence.
　　Consciousness，whichmanhasfromhisspecies，istransformedthroughestrangementsothatspecies—lifebecomesameansforhim.
　　（3）Estrangedlabor，therefore，turnsman’sspecies—being——bothnatureandhisintellectualspecies—power——intoabeingalientohimandameansofhisindividualexistence.Itestrangesmanfromhisownbody，fromnatureasitexistsoutsidehim，fromhisspiritualessence[Wesen]，hishumanexistence.
　　（4）Animmediateconsequenceofman’sestrangementfromtheproductofhislabor，hislifeactivity，hisspecies—being，istheestrangementofmanfromman.Whenmanconfronthimself，healsoconfrontsothermen.Whatistrueofman’srelationshiptohislabor，totheproductofhislabor，andtohimself，isalsotrueofhisrelationshiptoothermen，andtothelaborandtheobjectofthelaborofothermen.
　　Ingeneral，thepropositionthatmanisestrangedfromhisspecies—beingmeansthateachmanisestrangedfromtheothersandthatallareestrangedfromman’sessence.
　　Man’sestrangement，likeallrelationshipsofmantohimself，isrealizedandexpressedonlyinman’srelationshiptoothermen.
　　Intherelationshipofestrangedlabor，eachmanthereforeregardstheotherinaccordancewiththestandardandthesituationinwhichheasaworkerfindshimself.
　　Westartedoutfromaneconomicfact，theestrangementoftheworkerandofhisproduction.Wegavethisfactconceptualform：estranged，alienatedlabor.Wehaveanalyzedthisconcept，andinsodoingmerelyanalyzedaneconomicfact.
　　Letusnowgoontoseehowtheconceptofestranged，alienatedlabormustexpressandpresentitselfinreality.
　　Iftheproductoflaborisalientome，andconfrontsmeasanalienpower，towhomdoesitthenbelong？
　　Toabeingotherthanme.
　　Whoisthisbeing？
　　Thegods？Itistruethatinearlytimesmostproduction——e.g.，templebuilding，etc.，inEgypt，India，andMexico——wasintheserviceofthegods，justastheproductbelongedtothegods.Butthegodsalonewereneverthemastersoflabor.Thesameistrueofnature.Andwhataparadoxitwouldbeifthemoremansubjugatesnaturethroughhislaborandthemoredivinemiraclesaremadesuperfluousbythemiraclesofindustry，themoreheisforcedtoforgothejoyorproductionandtheenjoymentoftheproductoutofdeferencetothesepowers.
　　Thealienbeingtowhomlaborandtheproductoflaborbelong，inwhoseservicelaborisperformed，andforwhoseenjoymenttheproductoflaboriscreated，canbenoneotherthanmanhimself.
　　Iftheproductoflabordoesnotbelongtotheworker，andifitconfrontshimasanalienpower，thisisonlypossiblebecauseitbelongstoamanotherthantheworker.Ifhisactivityisatormentforhim，itmustprovidepleasureandenjoymentforsomeoneelse.Notthegods，notnature，butonlymanhimselfcanbethisalienpowerovermen.
　　Considertheabovepropositionthattherelationshipofmantohimselfbecomesobjectiveandrealforhimonlythroughhisrelationshiptoothermen.If，therefore，heregardstheproductofhislabor，hisobjectifiedlabor，asanalien，hostile，andpowerfulobjectwhichisindependentofhim，thenhisrelationshiptothatobjectissuchthatanotherman——alien，hostile，powerful，andindependentofhim——isitsmaster.Ifherelatestohisownactivityasunfreeactivity，thenherelatestoitasactivityintheservice，undertherule，coercion，andyokeofanotherman.
　　Everyself—estrangementofmanfromhimselfandnatureismanifestedintherelationshiphesetsupbetweenothermenandhimselfandnature.
　　Thus，religiousself—estrangementisnecessarilymanifestedintherelationshipbetweenlaymanandpriest，or，sincewearedealingherewiththespiritualworld，betweenlaymanandmediator，etc.Inthepractical，realworld，self—estrangementcanmanifestitselfonlyinthepractical，realrelationshiptoothermen.Themediumthroughwhichestrangementprogressesisitselfapracticalone.Sothroughestrangedlabormannotonlyproduceshisrelationshiptotheobjectandtotheactofproductionastoalienandhostilepowers;
　　healsoproducestherelationshipinwhichothermenstandtohisproductionandproduct，andtherelationshipinwhichhestandstotheseothermen.
　　Justashecreateshisownproductionasalossofreality，apunishment，andhisownproductasaloss，aproductwhichdoesnotbelongtohim，sohecreatesthedominationofthenon—produceroverproductionanditsproduct.Justasheestrangesfromhimselfhisownactivity，soheconfersuponthestrangerandactivitywhichdoesnotbelongtohim.
　　Uptonow，wehaveconsideredtherelationshiponlyfromthesideoftheworker.Lateron，weshallconsideritfromthesideofthenon—worker.
　　Thus，throughestranged，alienatedlabor，theworkercreatestherelationshipofanotherman，whoisalientolaborandstandsoutsideit，tothatlabor.Therelationoftheworkertolaborcreatestherelationofthecapitalist——orwhateverotherwordonechoosesforthemasteroflabor——tothatlabor.Privatepropertyisthereforetheproduct，result，andnecessaryconsequenceofalienatedlabor，oftheexternalrelationoftheworkertonatureandtohimself.
　　Privatepropertythusderivesfromananalysisoftheconceptofalienatedlabor——i.e.，alienatedman，estrangedlabor，estrangedlife，estrangedman.
　　Itistruethatwetooktheconceptofalienatedlabor（alienatedlife）frompoliticaleconomyasaresultofthemovementofprivateproperty.
　　Butitisclearfromananalysisofthisconceptthat，althoughprivatepropertyappearsasthebasisandcauseofalienatedlabor，itisinfactitsconsequence，justasthegodswereoriginallynotthecausebuttheeffectoftheconfusioninmen’sminds.Later，however，thisrelationshipbecomesreciprocal.
　　Itisonlywhenthedevelopmentofprivatepropertyreachesitsultimatepointofculminationthatthis，itssecret，re—emerges;namely，thatis（a）theproductofalienatedlabor，and（b）themeansthroughwhichlaborisalienated，therealizationofthisalienation.
　　Thisdevelopmentthrowslightuponanumberofhithertounresolvedcontroversies.
　　（1）Politicaleconomystartsoutfromlaborastherealsoulofproductionandyetgivesnothingtolaborandeverythingtoprivateproperty.Proudhonhasdealtwiththiscontradictionbydecidingforlaborandagainstprivateproperty[seehis1840pamphlet，Qu’est—cequelapropriete？].Butwehaveseenthatthisapparentcontradictionisthecontradictionofestrangedlaborwithitselfandthatpoliticaleconomyhasmerelyformulatedlawsofestrangedlabor.
　　It，therefore，followsforusthatwagesandprivatepropertyareidentical：fortheretheproduct，theobjectoflabor，paysforthelaboritself，wagesareonlyanecessaryconsequenceoftheestrangementoflabor;similarly，wherewagesareconcerned，laborappearsnotasanendinitselfbutastheservantofwages.Weintendtodealwiththispointinmoredetaillateron：forthepresentweshallmerelydrawafewconclusions.
　　Anenforcedriseinwages（disregardingallotherdifficulties，includingthefactthatsuchananomaloussituationcouldonlybeprolongedbyforce）wouldthereforebenothingmorethanbetterpayforslavesandwouldnotmeananincreaseinhumansignificanceordignityforeithertheworkerorthelabor.
　　Eventheequalityofwages，whichProudhondemands，wouldmerelytransformtherelationofthepresent—dayworkertohisworkintotherelationofallmentowork.Societywouldthenbeconceivedasanabstractcapitalist.
　　Wagesareanimmediateconsequenceofestrangedlabor，andestrangedlaboristheimmediatecauseofprivateproperty.Iftheonefalls，thentheothermustfalltoo.
　　（2）Itfurtherfollowsfromtherelationofestrangedlabortoprivatepropertythattheemancipationofsocietyfromprivateproperty，etc.，fromservitude，isexpressedinthepoliticalformoftheemancipationoftheworkers.Thisisnotbecauseitisonlyaquestionoftheiremancipation，butbecauseintheiremancipationiscontaineduniversalhumanemancipation.
　　Thereasonforthisuniversalityisthatthewholeofhumanservitudeisinvolvedintherelationoftheworkertoproduction，andallrelationsofservitudearenothingbutmodificationsandconsequencesofthisrelation.
　　Justaswehavearrivedattheconceptofprivatepropertythroughananalysisoftheconceptofestranged，alienatedlabor，sowiththehelpofthesetwofactorsitispossibletoevolvealleconomiccategories，andineachofthesecategories——e.g.，trade，competition，capital，money——weshallidentifyonlyaparticularanddevelopedexpressionofthesebasicconstituents.
　　But，beforewegoontoconsiderthisconfiguration，letustrytosolvetwofurtherproblems.
　　（1）Wehavetodeterminethegeneralnatureofprivateproperty，asithasarisenoutofestrangedlabor，initsrelationtotrulyhumanandsocialproperty.
　　（2）Wehavetakentheestrangementoflabor，itsalienation，asafactandwehaveanalyzedthatfact.How，wenowask，doesmancometoalienatehislabor，toestrangeit？Howitthisestrangementfoundedinthenatureofhumandevelopment？Wehavealreadygonealongwaytowardssolvingthisproblembytransformingthequestionoftheoriginofprivatepropertyintothequestionoftherelationshipofalienatedlabortothecourseofhumandevelopment.For，inspeakingofprivateproperty，oneimaginesthatoneisdealingwithsomethingexternaltoman.Inspeakingoflabor，oneisdealingimmediatelywithmanhimself.Thisnewwayofformulatingtheproblemalreadycontainsitssolution.
　　Asto（1）：Thegeneralnatureofprivatepropertyanditsrelationshiptotrulyhumanproperty.
　　Alienatedlaborhasresolveditselfforusintotwocomponentparts，whichmutuallyconditiononeanother，orwhicharemerelydifferentexpressionsofoneandthesamerelationship.Appropriationappearsasestrangement，asalienation;andalienationappearsasappropriation，estrangementastrueadmissiontocitizenship.
　　Wehaveconsideredtheoneaspect，alienatedlaborinrelationtotheworkerhimself——i.e.，therelationofalienatedlabortoitself.Andasproduct，asnecessaryconsequenceofthisrelationship，wehavefoundthepropertyrelationofthenon—workertotheworkerandtolabor.Privatepropertyasthematerial，summarizedexpressionofalienatedlaborembracesbothrelations——therelationoftheworkertolaborandtotheproductofhislaborandthenon—workers，andtherelationofthenon—workertotheworkerandtotheproductofhislabor.
　　Wehavealreadyseenthat，inrelationtotheworkerwhoappropriatesnaturethroughhislabor，appropriationappearsasestrangement，self—activityasactivityforanotherandofanother，vitalityasasacrificeoflife，productionofanobjectaslossofthatobjecttoanalienpower，toanalienman.Letusnowconsidertherelationbetweenthisman，whoisalientolaborandtotheworker，andtheworker，labor，andtheobjectoflabor.
　　Thefirstthingtopointoutisthateverythingwhichappearsfortheworkerasanactivityofalienation，ofestrangement，appearsforthenon—workerasasituationofalienation，ofestrangement.
　　Secondly，thereal，practicalattitudeoftheworkerinproductionandtotheproduct（asastateofmind）appearsforthenon—workerwhoconfrontshimasatheoreticalattitude.
　　Thirdly，thenon—workerdoeseverythingagainsttheworkerwhichtheworkerdoesagainsthimself，buthedoesnotdoagainsthimselfwhathedoesagainsttheworker.
　　Letustakeacloserlookatthesethreerelationships.
　　[FirstManuscriptbreaksoffhere.]
　　TheEconomicandPhilosophicalManuscripts：2ndKarlMarx’sECONOMICANDPHILOSOPHICALMANUSCRIPTSSecondManuscriptTHERELATIONSHIPOFPRIVATEPROPERTYformstheinterestonhiscapital.Theworkeristhesubjectivemanifestationofthefactthatcapitalismancompletelylosttohimself，justascapitalistheobjectivemanifestationofthefactthatlaborismanlosttohimself.
　　Buttheworkerhasthemisfortunetobealivingcapital，and，hence，acapitalwithneeds，whichforfeitsitsinterestandhenceitsexistenceeverymomentitisnotworking.Ascapital，thevalueoftheworkerrisesorfallsinaccordancewithsupplyanddemand，andeveninaphysicalsensehisexistence，hislife，wasandistreatedasasupplyofacommodity，likeanyothercommodity.
　　Theworkerproducescapitalandcapitalproduceshim，whichmeansthatheproduceshimself;manasaworker，asacommodity，istheproductofthisentirecycle.Thehumanpropertiesofmanasaworker——manwhoisnothingmorethanaworker——existonlyinsofarastheyexistforacapitalwhichisalientohim.But，becauseeachisalientotheother，andstandsinanindifferent，external，andfortuitousrelationshiptoit，thisaliencharacterinevitablyappearsassomethingreal.So，soonasitoccurstocapital——whetherfromnecessityorchoice——nottoexistanylongerfortheworker，henolongerexistsforhimself;hehasnowork，andhencenowages，andsinceheexistsnotasamanbutasaworker，hemightjustaswellhaveburiedhimself，starvetodeath，etc.Theworkerexistsasaworkeronlywhenheexistsforhimselfascapital，andheexistsascapitalonlywhencapitalexistsforhim.Theexistenceofcapitalishisexistence，hislife，foritdeterminesthecontentofhislifeinamannerindifferenttohim.Politicaleconomy，therefore，doesnotrecognizetheunoccupiedworker，theworkingmaninsofarasheisoutsidethisworkrelationship.Theswindler，thecheat，thebeggar，theunemployed，thestarving，thedestitute，andthecriminalworkingmanarefigureswhichexistnotforit，butonlyforothereyes——fortheeyesofdoctors，judges，grave—diggers，beadles，etc.Nebulousfigureswhichdonotbelongwithintheprovinceofpoliticaleconomy.Therefore，asfaraspoliticaleconomyisconcerned，therequirementsoftheworkercanbenarroweddowntoone：theneedtosupporthimwhileheisworkingandpreventtheraceofworkersfromdyingout.Wages，therefore，haveexactlythesamemeaningasthemaintenanceandupkeepofanyotherproductiveinstrument，orastheconsumptionofcapitalingeneralwhichisnecessaryifitistoreproduceitselfwithinterest——e.g.，theoilwhichisappliedtowheelstokeepthemturning.Wages，therefore，belongtothenecessarycostsofcapitalandofthecapitalist，andmustnotbeinexcessofthisnecessaryamount.Itwas，therefore，quitelogicalfortheEnglishfactoryowners，beforetheAmendmentBillof1834[PoorLaws]，todeductfromtheworker’swagesthepublicalmswhichhereceivedfromthePoorRate，andtoconsidertheseaimsasanintegralpartofthosewages.
　　Productiondoesnotproducemanonlyasacommodity，thehumancommodity，manintheformofacommodity;italsoproduceshimasamentallyandphysicallydehumanizedbeingImmorality，malformation，stupidityofworkersandcapitaliststhehumancommodityAgreatadvancebyRicardo，Mill，etc.，onSmithandSay，todeclaretheexistenceofthehumanbeing——thegreaterorlesserhumanproductivityofthecommodity——tobeindifferentandevenharmful.Therealaimofproductionisnothowmanyworkersaparticularsumofcapitalcansupport，buthowmuchinterestitbringsinandhowmuchitsaveseachyear.Similarly，Englishpoliticaleconomytookabigstepforward，andalogicalone，when——whileacknowledginglaborasthesoleprincipleofpoliticaleconomy——itshowedwithcompleteclaritythatwagesandinterestoncapitalareinverselyrelatedandthat，asarule，thecapitalistcanpushuphisprofitsonlybyforcingdownwages，andviceversa.Clearly，thenormalrelationshipisnotoneinwhichthecustomerischeated，butinwhichthecapitalistandtheworkercheateachother.Therelationofprivatepropertycontainslatentwithinitselftherelationofprivatepropertyaslabor，therelationofprivatepropertyascapital，andtheconnectionofthesetwo.Ontheonehand，wehavetheproductionofhumanactivityaslabor——i.e.，asanactivitywhollyalientoitself，toman，andtonature，andhencetoconsciousnessandvitalexpression，theabstractexistenceofmanasamereworkmanwho，therefore，tumblesday—after—dayfromhisfulfillednothingnessintoabsolutenothingness，intohissocialand，hence，realnon—existence;and，ontheother，theproductionoftheobjectofhumanlaborascapital，inwhichallthenaturalandsocialindividualityoftheobjectisextinguishedandprivatepropertyhaslostitsnaturalandsocialquality（i.e.，haslostallpoliticalandsocialappearancesandisnotevenapparentlytaintedwithanyhumanrelationships），inwhichthesamecapitalstaysthesameinthemostvariednaturalandsocialcircumstance，totallyindifferenttoitsrealcontent.Thiscontradiction，driventoitsutmostlimit，isnecessarilythelimit，theculminationandthedeclineofthewholesystemofprivateproperty.
　　Itis，therefore，yetanothergreatachievementofrecentEnglishpoliticaleconomytohavedeclaredgroundrenttobethedifferencebetweentheinterestontheworstandthebestlandundercultivation，tohaveconfutedtheromanticillusionsoftheland—owner——hisallegedsocialimportanceandtheidentityofhisinterestwiththeinterestofsociety，whichAdamSmithcontinuedtopropoundafterthePhysiocrats——andtohaveanticipatedandpreparedthechangesinrealitywhichwilltransformtheland—ownerintoaquiteordinaryandprosaiccapitalist，therebysimplifyingthecontradiction，bringingittoaheadandhasteningitsresolution.Landaslandandgroundrentasgroundrenthavetherebylosttheirdistinctioninrankandhavebecomedumbcapitalandinterest——or，rather，capitalandinterestwhichonlytalkhardcash.Thedistinctionbetweencapitalandland，betweenprofitandgroundrent，andthedistinctionbetweenbothandwages，industry，agriculture，andimmovableandmovableprivateproperty，isnotonewhichisgroundedinthenatureofthings，itisahistoricaldistinction，afixedmomentintheformationanddevelopmentoftheoppositionbetweencapitalandlabor.Inindustry，etc.，asopposedtoimmovablelandedproperty，onlythemannerinwhichindustryfirstaroseandtheoppositiontoagriculturewithinwhichindustrydeveloped，areexpressed.Asaspecialkindofwork，asanessential，important，andlife—encompassingdistinction，thisdistinctionbetweenindustryandagriculturesurvivesonlyaslongasindustry（townlife）isdevelopinginoppositiontolandedproperty（aristocraticfeudallife）andcontinuestobearthefeudalcharacteristicsofitsoppositeintheformofmonopoly，crafts，guilds，corporations，etc.Giventheseforms，laborcontinuestohaveanapparentlysocialmeaning，themeaningofgenuinecommunity，andhasnotyetreachedthestageofindifferencetowardsitscontentandofcompletebeing—for—itself——i.e.，ofabstractionfromallotherbeingand，hence，ofliberatedcapital.
　　But，thenecessarydevelopmentoflaborisliberatedindustryconstitutedforitselfassuch，andliberatedcapital.Thepowerofindustryoveritsantagonistis，atonce，manifestedintheemergenceofagricultureasanactualindustry，whereaspreviouslymostoftheworkwaslefttothesoilitselfandtotheslaveofthesoil，throughwhomthesoilcultivateditself.
　　Withthetransformationoftheslaveintoafreeworker——i.e.，ahireling——thelandownerhimselfistransformedintoamasterofindustry，acapitalist.Thistransformationatfirsttookplacethroughtheagencyofthetenantfarmer.Butthetenantfarmeristherepresentative，therevealedsecret，ofthelandowner;onlythroughhimdoesthelandownerhavehiseconomicexistence，hisexistenceasapropertyowner——forthegroundrentofhislandexistsonlybecauseofthecompetitionbetweenthetenants.So，inthepersonofthetenantthelandownerhasalreadyessentiallybecomeacommoncapitalist.Andthismustalsobeeffectedinreality;thecapitalistengagedinagriculture——thetenant——mustbecomealandlord，orvice—versa.Theindustrialtradeofthetenantistheindustrialtradeofthelandlord，fortheexistenceoftheformerpositstheexistenceofthelatter.
　　But，rememberingtheirconflictingoriginsanddescent，thelandownerseesthecapitalistashispresumptuous，liberated，andenrichedslaveofyesterday，andhimselfasacapitalistwhoisthreatenedbyhim;thecapitalistseesthelandownerastheidle，cruel，andegotisticallordofyesterday;heknowsthatthelandownerisharmfultohimasacapitalist，andyetthatheoweshisentirepresentsocialposition，hispossessionsandhispleasures，toindustry;thecapitalistseesinthelandownertheantithesisoffreeindustryandfreecapital，whichisindependentofallnaturalforces——thisoppositionisextremelybitter，andeachsidetellsthetruthabouttheother.Oneonlyneedreadtheattackslaunchedbyimmovableonmovableproperty，andvice—versa，inordertogainaclearpictureoftheirrespectiveworthlessness.Theland—owneremphasizesthenoblelineageofhisproperty，thefeudalreminiscences，thepoetryofremembrance，hishigh—flownnature，hispoliticalimportance，etc.Whenheistalkingeconomics，heavowsthatagriculturealoneisproductive.
　　Atthesametime，hedepictshisopponentasawily，huckstering，censorious，deceitful，greedy，mercenary，rebellious，heartless，andsoullessracketeerwhoisestrangedfromhiscommunityandbusilytradesitaway，aprofiteering，pimping，servile，smooth，affectedtrickster，adesiccatedsharperwhobreeds，nourishes，andencouragescompetitionandpauperism，crimeandthedissolutionofallsocialties，whoiswithouthonor，principles，poetry，substance，oranythingelse.（See，amongothers，thePhysiocratBergasse，whomCamilleDesmoulinshasalreadyflayedinhisjournalRevolutionsdeFranceetdeBrabant;seealsovonVincke，Lancizolle，Haller，Leo，Kosegarten，andSismondi.）
　　MARXNOTE：SeealsothepompousOldHegeliantheologianFunke，who，accordingtoHerrLeo，toldwithtearsinhiseyeshowaslavehadrefused，whenserfdomwasabolished，toceasebeinganoblepossession.
　　SeealsoJustusMoser’sPatriotischePhantasien，whicharedistinguishedbythefactthattheyneverforonemomentleavethestaunch，petty—bourgeois，"Home—baked"，ordinary，narrow—mindedhorizonofthephilistine，and，yetstill，remainpurefantasy.ItisthiscontradictionwhichhasmadethemsoplausibletotheGermanmind.
　　Movableproperty，foritspart，pointstothemiraclesofindustryandchange.Itisthechild，thelegitimate，only—begottenson，ofthemodernage.Itfeelssorryforitsopponent，whomitseesasahalf—witunenlightenedastohisownnature（anassessmentnoonecoulddisagreewith）andeagertoreplacemoralcapitalandfreelaborbybrute，immoralforceandserfdom.ItpaintshimasaDonQuixote，who，undertheveneerofdirectness，probity，thegeneralinterest，andstability，hidesaninabilityandevilintent.Itbrandshimasacunningmonopolist.Itdiscountenanceshisreminiscences，hispoetry，andhisenthusiasticgushings，byahistoricalandsarcasticrecitalofthebaseness，cruelty，degradation，prostitution，infamy，anarchy，andrevoltforgedintheworkshopsofhisromanticcastles.
　　Movableproperty，itself，claimstohavewonpoliticalfreedomfortheworld，tohaveloosedthechainsofcivilsociety，tohavelinkedtogetherdifferentworlds，tohavegivenrisetotrade，whichencouragesfriendshipbetweenpeoplesandtohavecreatedapuremoralityandapleasingculture;
　　tohavegiventhepeoplecivilizedinsteadofcrudewantsandthemeanswithwhichitsatisfythem.Thelandowner，ontheotherhand——thisidleandvexatiousspeculatoringrain——putsupthepriceofthepeople’sbasicprovisionsandtherebyforcesthecapitalisttoputupwageswithoutbeingabletoraiseproductivity，somakingitdifficult，andeventuallyimpossible，toincreasetheannualincomeofthenationandtoaccumulatethecapitalwhichisnecessaryifworkistobeprovidedforthepeopleandwealthforthecountry.Asaresult，thelandownerbringsaboutageneraldecline.Moreover，heinordinatelyexploitsalltheadvantagesofmoderncivilizationwithoutdoingtheleastthinginreturn，andwithoutmitigatingasingleoneofhisfeudalprejudices.Finally，thelandlord——forwhomthecultivationofthelandandthesoilitselfexistonlyasaheaven—sentsourceofmoney——shouldtakealookatthetenantfarmerandsaywhetherhehimselfisnotadownright，fantastic，cunningscoundrel，whoinhisheartandinactualfacthasforalongtimebeenpartoffreeindustryandwell—lovedtrade，howevermuchhemayresistthemandprattleofhistoricalmemoriesandmoralorpoliticalgoals.Alltheargumentshecangenuinelyadvanceinhisownfavorareonlytrueforthecultivatoroftheland（thecapitalistandthelaborers），ofwhomthelandownerisrathertheenemy;thus，hetestifiesagainsthimself.Withoutcapital，landedpropertyisdead，worthlessmatter.Thecivilizedvictoryofmovablecapitalhaspreciselybeentorevealandcreatehumanlaborasthesourceofwealthinplaceofthedeadthing.（SeePaul—LouisCourier，Saint—Simon，Ganilh，Ricardo，Mill，MacCulloch，DestuttdeTracy，andMichaelChevalier.）
　　Therealcourseofdevelopment（tobeinsertedhere）leadsnecessarilytothevictoryofthecapitalist——i.e.，ofdevelopedprivateproperty——overundeveloped，immatureprivateproperty——thelandowner.Inthesameway，movementinevitablytriumphsoverimmobility，openandself—consciousbasenessoverhiddenandunconsciousbaseness，greedoverself—indulgence，theavowedlyrestlessandversatileself—interestofenlightenmentovertheparochial，worldly—wise，artless，lazyanddeludedself—interestofsuperstition，justasmoneymusttriumphovertheotherformsofprivateproperty.Thosestateswhichhaveaforebodingofthedangerofallowingthefulldevelopmentoffreeindustry，puremorality，andthattradewhichencouragesfriendshipamongpeoples，attempt——althoughquiteinvain——toputastoptothecapitalizationoflandedproperty.
　　Landedproperty，asdistinctfromcapital，isprivateproperty，capital，whichisstillafflictedwithlocalandpoliticalprejudices，whichhasnotyetentirelyemergedfromitsinvolvementwiththeworldandcomeintoitsown;itiscapitalwhichisnotyetfullydeveloped.Inthecourseofitsformationonaworldscale，itmustattainitsabstract，i.e.，pure，expression.Therelationofprivatepropertyislabor，capital，andtheconnectionbetweenthesetwo.Themovementthroughwhichtheseparts[Glieder]havetopassis：
　　First——Unmediateormediatedunityofthetwo.Capitalandlabor，atfirst，stillunited;later，separatedandestranged，butreciprocallydevelopingandfurtheringeachotheraspositiveconditions.
　　Second——Oppositionofthetwo.Theymutuallyexcludeeachother;
　　theworkerseesinthecapitalisthisownnon—existence，andvice—versa;
　　eachtriestowrenchfromtheotherhisexistence.
　　Third——Oppositionofeachtoitself.Capital=stored—uplabor=labor.Assuch，itdividesintoitself（capital）anditsinterest;thislatterdividesintointerestandprofit.Completesacrificeofthecapitalist.
　　Hesinksintotheworkingclass，justastheworker——butonlybywayofexception——becomesacapitalist.Laborasamomentofcapital，itscosts.i.e.，wagesasacrificeofcapital.
　　Labordividesintolaboritselfandwagesoflabor.Theworkershimselfacapital，acommodity.
　　Hostilereciprocalopposition.
　　TheEconomicandPhilosophicalManuscripts：3rdKarlMarx’sECONOMICANDPHILOSOPHICALMANUSCRIPTSThirdManuscriptPRIVATEPROPERTYANDLABORadpageXXXVI.[Marxnumberedthepagesofthesemanuscriptsinromannumerals.ThepagereferredtoisoneofthosemissingbetweentheFirstandSecondManuscripts.]
　　Thesubjectiveessenceofprivateproperty，privatepropertyasactivityforitself，assubject，asperson，islabor.
　　It，therefore，goeswithoutsayingthatonlythatpoliticaleconomywhichrecognizedlaborasitsprinciple（AdamSmith），andwhichthereforenolongerregardedprivatepropertyasnothingmorethanaconditionexternaltoman，canberegardedasbothaproductoftherealenergyandmovementofprivateproperty（itistheindependentmovementofprivatepropertybecomeconsciousofitself，itismodernindustryasself），aproductofmodernindustry，andafactorwhichhasacceleratedandglorifiedtheenergyanddevelopmentofthisindustryandtransformeditintoapowerbelongingtoconsciousness.Therefore，thesupportersofthemonetaryandmercantilesystem，wholookuponprivatepropertyasapurelyobjectivebeingforman，appearasfetish—worshippers，asCatholics，tothisenlightenedpoliticaleconomy，whichhasrevealed——withinthesystemofprivateproperty——
　　thesubjectiveessenceofwealth.Engelswas，therefore，righttocallAdamSmiththeLutherofpoliticaleconomy[inEngels1843OutlinesofaCritiqueofPoliticalEconomy].JustasLutherrecognizedreligionandfaithastheessenceoftheexternalworldand，inconsequence，confrontedCatholicpaganism;justashetranscendedreligionexternalreligiositybymakingreligiositytheinneressenceofman;justashenegatedtheideaofpriestsassomethingseparateandapartfromthelaymanbytransferringthepriestintotheheartofthelayman;sowealthassomethingoutsideman，andindependentofhim——and，therefore，onlytobeacquiredacquiredandmaintainedexternally——isabolished[aufgehoben].i.e.，itsexternalandmindlessobjectivityisabolishedinasmuchasprivatepropertyisembodiedinmanhimselfandmanhimselfisrecognizedasitsessence——butthisbringsmanhimselfintotheprovinceofreligion.So，althoughpoliticaleconomy，whoseprincipleislabor，appearstorecognizeman，itis，infact，nothingmorethanthedenialofmancarriedthroughtoitslogicalconclusion：formanhimselfnolongerstandsinarelationofexternaltensiontotheexternalessenceofprivateproperty——hehimselfhasbecomethetenseessenceofprivateproperty.Whatwasformerlybeing—external—to—oneself，man’smaterialexternalization，hasnowbecometheactofalienation——i.e.，alienationthroughselling[Verausserung].Thispoliticaleconomy，therefore，startsoutbyseemingtorecognizeman，hisindependence，hisspontaneousactivity，etc.Sinceittransfersprivatepropertyintotheverybeingofman，itcannolongerbeconditionedbylocalornationalfeaturesofprivatepropertyassomethingexistingoutsideit.It（politicaleconomy）developsacosmopolitan，universalenergywhichbreaksthrougheverylimitationandbondandsetsitselfupastheonlypolicy，theonlyuniversality，theonlylimitation，andtheonlybond.Butthen，asitcontinuestodevelop，itisforcedtocastoffitshypocrisyandstepforthinallitscynicism.Thisitdoes，withouttroublingitsheadforonemomentaboutalltheapparentcontradictiontowhichthisdoctrineleads，bydevelopinginamoreone—sidedway，and，thus，moresharplyandmorelogically，theideaoflaborasthesoleessenceofwealth，byshowingthattheconclusionsofthisdoctrine，unliketheoriginalconception，areanti—human，andfinallybedeliveringthedeath—blowtogroundrent——thatlastindividualandnaturalformofprivatepropertyandsourceofwealthindependentofthemovementoflabor，thatexpressionoffeudalpropertywhichhasalreadybecomeentirelyeconomicandisthereforeincapableofputtingupanyresistancetopoliticaleconomy.（TheRicardoSchool.）
　　NotonlydoespoliticaleconomybecomeincreasinglycynicalfromSmiththroughSaytoRicardo，Milletc.，inasmuchastheconsequencesofindustryappearedmoredevelopedandmorecontradictorytothelatter;thelatteralsobecamemoreestranged——consciouslyestranged——frommanthantheirpredecessors.Butthisisonlybecausetheirsciencedevelopsmorelogicallyandmoretruly.Sincetheymakeprivatepropertyinitsactiveformthesubject，therebymakingmanasanon—being[Unwesen]theessence[Wesen]，thecontradictioninrealitycorrespondsentirelytothecontradictoryessencewhichtheyhaveacceptedastheirprinciple.Thediscordantrealityofindustry，farfromrefusingtheirinternallydiscordantprinciple，actuallyconfirmsit.Theirprincipleisinfacttheprincipleofthisdiscordance.
　　ThephysiocraticdoctrineofDrQuesnayformsthetransitionfromthemercantilesystemtoAdamSmith.Physiocracyis，inadirectsense，theeconomicdissolutionoffeudalproperty，butitisthereforejustasdirectlytheeconomictransformationandrestorationofthatproperty.
　　Theonlyrealdifferenceisthatitslanguageisnolongerfeudalbuteconomic.
　　Allwealthisresolvedintolandandagriculture.Thelandisnotyetcapital;
　　itisstillaparticularmodeofexistenceofcapitalwhosevalueissupposedtolieinitsnaturalparticularity.Butlandisauniversalnaturalelement，whereasthemercantilesystemconsideredthatwealthexistedonlyinpreciousmetals.Theobjectofwealth，itsmatter，hasthereforeattainedthegreatestdegreeofuniversalitypossiblewithinthelimitsofnature——insofarasitisdirectlyobjectivewealthevenasnature.Anditisonlythroughlabor，throughagriculture，thatlandexistsforman.Consequently，thesubjectiveessenceofwealthisalreadytransferredtolabor.But，atthesametime，agricultureistheonlyproductivelabor.Laboris，therefore，notyetgraspedinitsuniversalandabstractform，butisstilltiedtoaparticularelementofnatureasitsmatterandifforthatreasonrecognizedonlyinaparticularmodeofexistencedeterminedbynature.Itis，therefore，stillonlyadeterminate，particularexternalizationofman——justasitsproductisconceivedasadeterminateformofwealth，duemoretonaturethantoitself.Here，thelandisstillregardedaspartofnaturewhichisindependentofman，andnotyetascapital——i.e.，asamomentoflaboritself.Rather，laborappearsasamomentofnature.But，sincethefetishismoftheoldexternalwealth，whichexistsonlyasanobject，hasbeenreducedtoaverysimpleelementofnature，andsinceitsessencehasbeenrecognized——evenifonlypartiallyandinaparticularway——
　　initssubjectiveessence，thenecessaryadvancehastakenplaceinthesensethattheuniversalnatureofwealthhasbeenrecognizedandlaborhas，therefore，beenelevatedinitsabsolute——i.e.，abstract——formtothatprinciple.ItispossibletoargueagainstthePhysiocratsthatagricultureisnodifferentfromaneconomicpointofview——thatis，fromtheonlyvalidpointofview——fromanyotherindustry，andthattheessenceofwealthisthereforenotaparticularformoflabortiedtoaparticularelement，aparticularmanifestationoflabor，butlaboringeneral.
　　Physiocracydeniesparticular，external，purelyobjectivewealthbydeclaringlabortobeitsessence.But，forphysiocracy，laborisinthefirstplacemerelythesubjectiveessenceoflandedproperty——itstartsoutfromthetypeofpropertywhichappearshistoricallyasthedominantandrecognizedtype.Itsimpleturnslandedpropertyintoalienatedman.Itabolishesthefeudalcharacteroflandedpropertybydeclaringindustry（agriculture）tobeitsessence;butitsetsitsfaceagainsttheworldofindustryandacknowledgesthefeudalsystembydeclaringagriculturetobetheonlyindustry.
　　Clearly，oncethesubjectiveessenceisgraspedofindustryconstitutingitselfinoppositiontolandedproperty——i.e.，asindustry——
　　thisessenceincludeswithinitthatopposition.For，justasindustryabsorbsannulledlandedproperty，sothesubjectiveessenceofindustryatthesametimeabsorbsthesubjectiveessenceoflandedproperty.
　　Justaslandedpropertyisthefirstformofprivateproperty，andindustryatfirstconfrontsithistoricallyasnothingmorethanaparticularsortofprivateproperty——or，rather，astheliberatedslaveoflandedproperty——sothisprocessisrepeatedinthescientificcomprehensionofthesubjectiveessenceofprivateproperty，oflabor;laborappearsatfirstonlyasagriculturallabor，butlaterassumestheformoflaboringeneral.
　　Allwealthhasbecomeindustrialwealth，wealthoflabor，andindustryisfullydevelopedlabor，justasthefactorysystemistheperfectedessenceofindustry——i.e.，oflabor——andindustrialcapitalthefullydevelopedobjectiveformofprivateproperty.
　　Thus，weseethatitisonlyatthispointthatprivatepropertycanperfectitsruleovermenandbecome，initsmostuniversalform，aworld—historicalpower.
　　PRIVATEPROPERTYANDCOMMUNISM
　　adpageXXXIX.[Thissection，"PrivatePropertyandCommunism"，formedanappendixtopageXXXIXoftheincompleteSecondManuscript.]
　　Buttheantithesisbetweenpropertylessnessandpropertyisstillanindifferentantithesis，notgraspedinitsactiveconnection，itsinnerrelation，notyetgraspedascontradiction，aslongasitisnotunderstoodastheantithesisbetweenlaborandcapital.Initsinitialform，thisantithesiscanmanifestitselfevenwithouttheadvanceddevelopmentofprivateproperty——as，forexample，inancientRome，inTurkey，etc.Insuchcases，itdoesnotyetappearasestablishedbyprivatepropertyitself.Butlabor，thesubjectiveessenceofprivatepropertyasexclusionofproperty，andcapital，objectivelaborasexclusionoflabor，constituteprivatepropertyinitsdevelopedrelationofcontradiction：
　　avigorousrelation，therefore，drivingtowardsresolution.
　　adibidem.
　　Thesupersession[Aufhebung]ofself—estrangementfollowsthesamecourseself—estrangement.Privatepropertyisfirstconsideredonlyinitsobjectiveaspect，butstillwithlaborasitsessence.Itsformofexistenceisthereforecapital，whichistobeabolished"assuch"（Proudhon）.
　　Ortheparticularformoflabor——levelleddown，parcelled，and，therefore，unfree——istakenasthesourceoftheharmfulnessofprivatepropertyanditshumanlyestrangedexistence.Forexample，Fourier，likethePhysiocrats，regardedagricultureasatleastthebestformoflabor，whileSaint—Simon，ontheotherhand，declaredindustriallaborassuchtobetheessenceandconsequentlywantsexclusiverulebytheindustrialistsandtheimprovementoftheconditionoftheworkers.Finally，communism[thatis，crudeorutopiancommunism，likeProudhonetalabove]isthepositiveexpressionoftheabolitionofprivateproperty，and，atfirst，appearsasuniversalprivateproperty.Ingraspingthisrelationinitsuniversality，communismis（1）initsinitialformonlyageneralizationandcompletionofthatrelation（ofprivateproperty）.Assuch，itappearsinadualform：
　　ontheonehand，thedominationofmaterialpropertybulkssolargethatitthreatenstodestroyeverythingwhichisnotcapableofbeingpossessedbyeveryoneasprivateproperty;itwantstoabstractfromtalent，etc.，byforce.Physical，immediatepossessionistheonlypurposeoflifendexistenceasfarasthiscommunismisconcerned;thecategoryofworkerisnotabolishedbutextendedtoallmen;therelationofprivatepropertyremainstherelationofthecommunitytotheworldofthings;
　　ultimately，thismovementtoopposeuniversalprivatepropertytoprivatepropertyisexpressedinbestialform——marriage（whichisadmittedlyaformofexclusiveprivateproperty）iscounterposedtothecommunityofwomen，wherewomenbecomecommunalandcommonproperty.Onemightsaythatthisideaofacommunityofwomenistherevealedsecretofthisasyetwhollycrudeandunthinkingcommunism.Justaswomenaretogofrommarriageintogeneralprostitution，sothewholeworldofwealth——i.e.，theobjectiveessenceofman——istomakethetransitionfromtherelationofexclusivemarriagewiththeprivateownertotherelationofuniversalprostitutionwiththecommunity.Thiscommunism，inasmuchasitnegatesthepersonalityofmanineverysphere，issimplythelogicalexpressionoftheprivatepropertywhichisthisnegation.Universalenvyconstitutingitselfasapoweristhehiddenforminwhichgreedreassertsitselfandsatisfiesitself，butinanotherway.Thethoughtsofeverypieceofprivatepropertyassuchareatleastturnedagainstricherprivatepropertyintheformofenvyandthedesiretoleveleverythingdown;hencethesefeelingsinfactconstitutetheessenceofcompetition.Thecrudecommunistismerelytheculminationofthisenvyanddesiretoleveldownonthebasisofapreconceivedminimum.Ithasadefinite，limitedmeasure.Howlittlethisabolitionofprivatepropertyisatrueappropriationisshownbytheabstractnegationoftheentireworldofcultureandcivilization，andthereturntotheunnaturalsimplicityofthepoor，unrefinedmanwhohasnoneedsandwhohasnotyetevenreachedthestageofprivateproperty，letalonggonebeyondit.
　　（Forcrudecommunism）thecommunityissimplyacommunityoflaborandequalityofwages，whicharepaidoutbythecommunalcapital，thecommunityasuniversalcapitalist.Bothsidesoftherelationareraisedtoanunimaginaryuniversality——laborastheconditioninwhicheveryoneisplacedandcapitalastheacknowledgeduniversalityandpowerofthecommunity.
　　Intherelationshipwithwoman，asthepreyandhandmaidofcommunallust，isexpressedtheinfinitedegradationinwhichmanexistsforhimself——forthesecretofthisrelationshiphasitsunambiguous，decisive，openandrevealedexpressionintherelationshipofmantowomanandinthemannerinwhichthedirect，naturalspecies—relationshipisconceived.Theimmediate，natural，necessaryrelationofhumanbeingtohumanbeingistherelationshipofmantowoman.Inthisnaturalspecies—relationship，therelationofmantonatureisimmediatelyhisrelationtoman，justashisrelationtomanisimmediatelyhisrelationtonature，hisownnaturalcondition.Therefore，thisrelationshiprevealsinasensuousform，reducedtoanobservablefact，theextenttowhichthehumanessencehasbecomenatureformanornaturehasbecomethehumanessenceforman.Itispossibletojudgefromthisrelationshiptheentirelevelofdevelopmentofmankind.
　　Itfollowsfromthecharacterofthisrelationshipofthisrelationshiphowfarmanasaspecies—being，asman，hasbecomehimselfandgraspedhimself;therelationofmantowomanisthemostnaturalrelationofhumanbeingtohumanbeing.Itthereforedemonstratestheextenttowhichman’snaturalbehaviorhasbecomehumanortheextenttowhichhishumanessencehasbecomeanaturalessenceforhim，theextenttowhichhishumannaturehasbecomenatureforhim.Thisrelationshipalsodemonstratestheextenttowhichman’sneedshavebecomehumanneeds，hencetheextenttowhichtheother，asahumanbeing，hasbecomeaneedforhim，theextenttowhichinhismostindividualexistenceheisatthesametimeacommunalbeing.
　　Thefirstpositiveabolitionofprivateproperty——crudecommunism——isthereforeonlyamanifestationofthevilenessofprivatepropertytryingtoestablishitselfasthepositivecommunity.
　　（2）Communism（a）stillofapoliticalnature，democraticordespotic;
　　（b）withtheabolitionofthestate，butstillessentiallyincompleteandinfluencedbyprivateproperty——i.e.，bytheestrangementofman.
　　Inbothforms，communismalreadyknowsitselfasthereintegration，orreturn，ofmanintohimself，thesupersessionofman’sself—estrangement;
　　butsinceithasnotyetcomprehendedthepositiveessenceofprivateproperty，orunderstoodthehumannatureofneed，itisstillheldcaptiveandcontaminatedbyprivateproperty.True，ithasunderstooditsconcept，butnotyetinessence.
　　[Marxnowendeavorstoexploreifownversionofcommunism，asdistinctfromProudhonetalabove.]
　　（3）Communismisthepositivesupersessionofprivatepropertyashumanself—estrangement，andhencethetrueappropriationofthehumanessencethroughandforman;itisthecompleterestorationofmantohimselfasasocial——i.e.，human——being，arestorationwhichhasbecomeconsciousandwhichtakesplacewithintheentirewealthofpreviousperiodsofdevelopment.Thiscommunism，asfullydevelopednaturalism，equalshumanism，andasfullydevelopedhumanismequalsnaturalism;itisthegenuineresolutionoftheconflictbetweenmanandnature，andbetweenmanandman，thetrueresolutionoftheconflictbetweenexistenceandbeing，betweenobjectificationandself—affirmation，betweenfreedomandnecessity，betweenindividualandspecies.Itisthesolutionoftheriddleofhistoryandknowsitselftobethesolution.
　　Theentiremovementofhistoryisthereforeboththeactualactofcreationofcommunism——thebirthofitsempiricalexistence——and，foritsthinkingconsciousness，thecomprehendedandknownmovementofitsbecoming;whereastheothercommunism，whichisnotyetfullydeveloped，seeksinisolatedhistoricalformsopposedtoprivatepropertyahistoricalproofforitself，aproofdrawnfromwhatalreadyexists，bywrenchingisolatedmomentsfromtheirproperplacesintheprocessofdevelopment（ahobbyhorseCabet，Villegardelle，etc.，particularlyliketoride）andadvancingthemasproofsofitshistoricalpedigree.Butallitsucceedsinshowingisthatbefarthegreaterpartofthisdevelopmentcontradictsitsassertionsandthatifitdidnotonceexist，thentheveryfactthatitexistedinthepastrefutesitsclaimtoessentialbeing[Wesen].
　　Itiseasytoseehownecessaryitisforthewholerevolutionarymovementtofindbothitsempiricalanditstheoreticalbasisinthemovementofprivatepropertyor，tobeexact，oftheeconomy.
　　Thismaterial，immediatelysensuousprivatepropertyisthematerial，sensuousexpressionofestrangedhumanlife.Itsmovement——productionandconsumption——isthesensuousrevelationofthemovementofallpreviousproduction——i.e.，therealizationorrealityofman.Religion，thefamily，thestate，law，morality，science，art，etc.，areonlyparticularmodesofproductionandthereforecomeunderitsgenerallaw.Thepositivesupersessionofprivateproperty，astheappropriationofhumanlife，isthereforethepositivesupersessionofallestrangement，andthereturnofmanfromreligion，thefamily，thestate，etc.，tohishuman——i.e.，social——existence.Religiousestrangementassuchtakesplaceonlyinthesphereofconsciousness，ofman’sinnerlife，buteconomicestrangementisthatofreallife——itssupersessionthereforeembracesbothaspects.
　　Clearlythenatureofthemovementindifferentcountriesinitiallydependsonwhethertheactualandacknowledgedlifeofthepeoplehasitsbeingmoreinconsciousnessorintheexternalworld，inidealorinreallife.
　　Communismbeginswithatheism（Owen），butatheismisinitiallyfarfrombeingcommunism，andisforthemostpartanabstraction.Thephilanthropyofatheismisthereforeatfirstnothingmorethananabstractphilosophicalphilanthropy，whilethatofcommunismisatoncerealanddirectlybenttowardsaction.
　　Wehaveseenhow，assumingthepositivesupersessionofprivateproperty，manproducesman，himselfandothermen;howtheobject，whichisthedirectactivityofhisindividuality，isatthesametimehisexistenceforothermen，theirexistenceandtheirexistenceforhim.Similarly，however，boththematerialoflaborandmanassubjectarethestarting—pointaswellastheoutcomeofthemovement（andthehistoricalnecessityofprivate—propertyliespreciselyinthefactthattheymustbethisstarting—point）.
　　Sothesocialcharacteristhegeneralcharacterofthewholemovement;
　　justassocietyitselfproducesmanasman，soitisproducedbyhim.Activityandconsumption，bothintheircontentandintheirmodeofexistence，aresocialactivityandsocialconsumption.Thehumanessenceofnatureexistsonlyforsocialman;foronlyheredoesnatureexistforhimasabondwithothermen，ashisexistenceforothersandtheirexistenceforhim，asthevitalelementofhumanreality;onlyheredoesitexistasthebasisofhisownhumanexistence.Onlyherehashisnaturalexistencebecomehishumanexistenceandnaturebecomemanforhim.Societyisthereforetheperfectedunityinessenceofmanwithnature，thetrueresurrectionofnature，therealizednaturalismofmanandtherealizedhumanismofnature.[Marxnoteatthebottomofthepage：Prostitutionisonlyaparticularexpressionoftheuniversalprostitutionoftheworker，andsinceprostitutionisarelationshipwhichincludesnotonlytheprostitutedbutalsotheprostitutor——whoseinfamyisevengreater——thecapitalistisalsoincludedinthiscategory.]