Contents
　　TheRiseofHistoricalCriticismTheEnglishRenaissanceofArtHouseDecorationArtandtheHandicraftmanLecturetoArtStudentsLondonModelsPoemsinProse
　　THERISEOFHISTORICALCRITICISM
　　CHAPTERI
　　HISTORICALcriticismnowhereoccursasanisolatedfactinthecivilisationorliteratureofanypeople.Itispartofthatcomplexworkingtowardsfreedomwhichmaybedescribedastherevoltagainstauthority.Itismerelyonefacetofthatspeculativespiritofaninnovation，whichinthesphereofactionproducesdemocracyandrevolution，andinthatofthoughtistheparentofphilosophyandphysicalscience;anditsimportanceasafactorofprogressisbasednotsomuchontheresultsitattains，asonthetoneofthoughtwhichitrepresents，andthemethodbywhichitworks.
　　Beingthustheresultantofforcesessentiallyrevolutionary，itisnottobefoundintheancientworldamongthematerialdespotismsofAsiaorthestationarycivilisationofEgypt.TheclaycylindersofAssyriaandBabylon，thehieroglyphicsofthepyramids，formnothistorybutthematerialforhistory.
　　TheChineseannals，ascendingastheydotothebarbarousforestlifeofthenation，aremarkedwithasobernessofjudgment，afreedomfrominvention，whichisalmostunparalleledinthewritingsofanypeople;buttheprotectivespiritwhichisthecharacteristicofthatpeopleprovedasfataltotheirliteratureastotheircommerce.Freecriticismisasunknownasfreetrade.
　　WhileasregardstheHindus，theiracute，analyticalandlogicalmindisdirectedrathertogrammar，criticismandphilosophythantohistoryorchronology.Indeed，inhistorytheirimaginationseemstohaverunwild，legendandfactaresoindissolublymingledtogetherthatanyattempttoseparatethemseemsvain.IfweexcepttheidentificationoftheGreekSandracottuswiththeIndianChandragupta，wehavereallynocluebywhichwecantestthetruthoftheirwritingsorexaminetheirmethodofinvestigation.
　　ItisamongtheHellenicbranchoftheIndo—Germanicracethathistoryproperistobefound，aswellasthespiritofhistoricalcriticism;amongthatwonderfuloffshootoftheprimitiveAryans，whomwecallbythenameofGreeksandtowhom，ashasbeenwellsaid，weoweallthatmovesintheworldexcepttheblindforcesofnature.
　　For，fromthedaywhentheyleftthechilltable—landsofTibetandjourneyed，anomadpeople，toAEgeanshores，thecharacteristicoftheirnaturehasbeenthesearchforlight，andthespiritofhistoricalcriticismispartofthatwonderfulAufklarungorilluminationoftheintellectwhichseemstohaveburstontheGreekracelikeagreatfloodoflightaboutthesixthcenturyB.C.
　　L’ESPRITD’UNSIECLENENAITPASETNEMEURTPASEJOURFIXE，andthefirstcriticisperhapsasdifficulttodiscoverasthefirstman.Itisfromdemocracythatthespiritofcriticismborrowsitsintoleranceofdogmaticauthority，fromphysicalsciencethealluringanalogiesoflawandorder，fromphilosophytheconceptionofanessentialunityunderlyingthecomplexmanifestationsofphenomena.Itappearsfirstratherasachangedattitudeofmindthanasaprincipleofresearch，anditsearliestinfluencesaretobefoundinthesacredwritings.
　　Formenbegintodoubtinquestionsofreligionfirst，andtheninmattersofmoresecularinterest;andasregardsthenatureofthespiritofhistoricalcriticismitselfinitsultimatedevelopment，itisnotconfinedmerelytotheempiricalmethodofascertainingwhetheraneventhappenedornot，butisconcernedalsowiththeinvestigationintothecausesofevents，thegeneralrelationswhichphenomenaoflifeholdtooneanother，andinitsultimatedevelopmentpassesintothewiderquestionofthephilosophyofhistory.
　　Now，whiletheworkingsofhistoricalcriticisminthesetwospheresofsacredanduninspiredhistoryareessentiallymanifestationsofthesamespirit，yettheirmethodsaresodifferent，thecanonsofevidencesoentirelyseparate，andthemotivesineachcasesounconnected，thatitwillbenecessaryforaclearestimationoftheprogressofGreekthought，thatweshouldconsiderthesetwoquestionsentirelyapartfromoneanother.I
　　shalltheninbothcasestakethesuccessionofwritersintheirchronologicalorderasrepresentingtherationalorder—notthatthesuccessionoftimeisalwaysthesuccessionofideas，orthatdialecticsmoveseverinthestraightlineinwhichHegelconceivesitsadvance.InGreekthought，aselsewhere，thereareperiodsofstagnationandapparentretrogression，yettheirintellectualdevelopment，notmerelyinthequestionofhistoricalcriticism，butintheirart，theirpoetryandtheirphilosophy，seemssoessentiallynormal，sofreefromalldisturbingexternalinfluences，sopeculiarlyrational，thatinfollowinginthefootstepsoftimeweshallreallybeprogressingintheordersanctionedbyreason.
　　CHAPTERII
　　ATanearlyperiodintheirintellectualdevelopmenttheGreeksreachedthatcriticalpointinthehistoryofeverycivilisednation，whenspeculativeinvadesthedomainofrevealedtruth，whenthespiritualideasofthepeoplecannolongerbesatisfiedbythelower，materialconceptionsoftheirinspiredwriters，andwhenmenfinditimpossibletopourthenewwineoffreethoughtintotheoldbottlesofanarrowandatrammellingcreed.
　　FromtheirAryanancestorstheyhadreceivedthefatallegacyofamythologystainedwithimmoralandmonstrousstorieswhichstrovetohidetherationalorderofnatureinachaosofmiracles，andtomarbyimputedwickednesstheperfectionofGod’snature—averyshirtofNessosinwhichtheHeraclesofrationalismbarelyescapedannihilation.NowwhileundoubtedlythespeculationsofThales，andthealluringanalogiesoflawandorderaffordedbyphysicalscience，weremostimportantforcesinencouragingtheriseofthespiritofscepticism，yetitwasonitsethicalsidethattheGreekmythologywaschieflyopentoattack.
　　Itisdifficulttoshakethepopularbeliefinmiracles，butnomanwilladmitsinandimmoralityasattributesoftheIdealheworships;sothefirstsymptomsofaneworderofthoughtareshowninthepassionateoutcriesofXenophanesandHeraclitosagainsttheevilthingssaidbyHomerofthesonsofGod;andinthestorytoldofPythagoras，howthathesawtorturedinHellthe’twofoundersofGreektheology，’wecanrecognisetheriseoftheAufklarungasclearlyasweseetheReformationforeshadowedintheINFERNOofDante.
　　Anyhonestbelief，then，intheplaintruthofthesestoriessoonsuccumbedbeforethedestructiveeffectsoftheAPRIORIethicalcriticismofthisschool;buttheorthodoxparty，asisitscustom，foundimmediatelyaconvenientshelterundertheaegisofthedoctrineofmetaphorsandconcealedmeanings.
　　TothisallegoricalschoolthetaleofthefightaroundthewallsofTroywasamystery，behindwhich，asbehindaveil，werehiddencertainmoralandphysicaltruths.ThecontestbetweenAthenaandAreswasthateternalcontestbetweenrationalthoughtandthebruteforceofignorance;thearrowswhichrattledinthequiverofthe’FarDarter’werenolongertheinstrumentsofvengeanceshotfromthegoldenbowofthechildofGod，butthecommonraysofthesun，whichwasitselfnothingbutamereinertmassofburningmetal.
　　Moderninvestigation，withtheruthlessnessofPhilistineanalysis，hasultimatelybroughtHelenofTroydowntoasymbolofthedawn.
　　TherewerePhilistinesamongtheGreeksalsowhosawinthe[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]ameremetaphorforatmosphericpower.
　　Nowwhilethistendencytolookformetaphorsandhiddenmeaningsmustberankedasoneofthegermsofhistoricalcriticism，yetitwasessentiallyunscientific.ItsinherentweaknessisclearlypointedoutbyPlato，whoshowedthatwhilethistheorywillnodoubtexplainmanyofthecurrentlegends，yet，ifitistobeappealedtoatall，itmustbeasauniversalprinciple;apositionheisbynomeanspreparedtoadmit.
　　Likemanyothergreatprinciplesitsufferedfromitsdisciples，andfurnisheditsownrefutationwhenthewebofPenelopewasanalysedintoametaphoroftherulesofformallogic，thewarprepresentingthepremises，andthewooftheconclusion.
　　Rejecting，then，theallegoricalinterpretationofthesacredwritingsasanessentiallydangerousmethod，provingeithertoomuchortoolittle，Platohimselfreturnstotheearliermodeofattack，andre—writeshistorywithadidacticpurpose，layingdowncertainethicalcanonsofhistoricalcriticism.Godisgood;Godisjust;Godistrue;Godiswithoutthecommonpassionsofmen.
　　ThesearetheteststowhichwearetobringthestoriesoftheGreekreligion.
　　’Godpredestinesnomentoruin，norsendsdestructiononinnocentcities;Heneverwalkstheearthinstrangedisguise，norhastomournforthedeathofanywell—belovedson.AwaywiththetearsforSarpedon，thelyingdreamsenttoAgamemnon，andthestoryofthebrokencovenant！’（Plato，REPUBLIC，Bookii.380;iii.388，391.）
　　Similarethicalcanonsareappliedtotheaccountsoftheheroesofthedaysofold，andbythesameAPRIORIprinciplesAchillesisrescuedfromthechargesofavariceandinsolenceinapassagewhichmayberecitedastheearliestinstanceofthat’whitewashingofgreatmen，’asithasbeencalled，whichissopopularinourownday，whenCatilineandClodiusarerepresentedashonestandfar—seeingpoliticians，whenEINEEDLEUNDGUTENATURisclaimedforTiberius，andNeroisrescuedfromhisheritageofinfamyasanaccomplishedDILETTANTEwhosemoralaberrationsaremorethanexcusedbyhisexquisiteartisticsenseandcharmingtenorvoice.
　　Butbesidestheallegorisingprincipleofinterpretation，andtheethicalreconstructionofhistory，therewasathirdtheory，whichmaybecalledthesemi—historical，andwhichgoesbythenameofEuhemeros，thoughhewasbynomeansthefirsttopropoundit.
　　AppealingtoafictitiousmonumentwhichhedeclaredthathehaddiscoveredintheislandofPanchaia，andwhichpurportedtobeacolumnerectedbyZeus，anddetailingtheincidentsofhisreignonearth，thisshallowthinkerattemptedtoshowthatthegodsandheroesofancientGreecewere’mereordinarymortals，whoseachievementshadbeenagooddealexaggeratedandmisrepresented，’
　　andthatthepropercanonofhistoricalcriticismasregardsthetreatmentofmythswastorationalisetheincredible，andtopresenttheplausibleresiduumasactualtruth.
　　Tohimandhisschool，thecentaurs，forinstance，thosemythicalsonsofthestorm，strangelinksbetweenthelivesofmenandanimals，weremerelysomeyouthsfromthevillageofNepheleinThessaly，distinguishedfortheirsportingtastes;the’livingharvestofpanopliedknights，’whichsprangsomysticallyfromthedragon’steeth，abodyofmercenarytroopssupportedbytheprofitsonasuccessfulspeculationinivory;andActaeon，anordinarymasterofhounds，who，livingbeforethedaysofsubscription，waseatenoutofhouseandhomebytheexpensesofhiskennel.
　　Now，thatundertheglamourofmythandlegendsomesubstratumofhistoricalfactmaylie，isapropositionrenderedextremelyprobablebythemoderninvestigationsintotheworkingsofthemythopoeicspiritinpost—Christiantimes.CharlemagneandRoland，St.FrancisandWilliamTell，arenonethelessrealpersonagesbecausetheirhistoriesarefilledwithmuchthatisfictitiousandincredible，butinallcaseswhatisessentiallynecessaryissomeexternalcorroboration，suchasisaffordedbythementionofRolandandRoncesvallesinthechroniclesofEngland，or（inthesphereofGreeklegend）bytheexcavationsofHissarlik.Buttorobamythicalnarrativeofitskernelofsupernaturalelements，andtopresentthedryhuskthusobtainedashistoricalfact，is，ashasbeenwellsaid，tomistakeentirelythetruemethodofinvestigationandtoidentifyplausibilitywithtruth.
　　AndasregardsthecriticalpointurgedbyPalaiphatos，Strabo，andPolybius，thatpureinventiononHomer’spartisinconceivable，wemaywithoutscrupleallowit，formyths，likeconstitutions，growgradually，andarenotformedinaday.Butbetweenapoet’sdeliberatecreationandhistoricalaccuracythereisawidefieldofthemythopoeicfaculty.
　　ThisEuhemeristictheorywaswelcomedasanessentiallyphilosophicalandcriticalmethodbytheunscientificRomans，towhomitwasintroducedbythepoetEnnius，thatpioneerofcosmopolitanHellenicism，anditcontinuedtocharacterisethetoneofancientthoughtonthequestionofthetreatmentofmythologytilltheriseofChristianity，whenitwasturnedbysuchwritersasAugustineandMinuciusFelixintoaformidableweaponofattackonPaganism.ItwasthenabandonedbyallthosewhostillbentthekneetoAthenaortoZeus，andageneralreturn，aidedbythephilosophicmysticsofAlexandria，totheallegorisingprincipleofinterpretationtookplace，astheonlymeansofsavingthedeitiesofOlympusfromtheTitanassaultsofthenewGalileanGod.Inwhatvaindefence，thestatueofMarysetintheheartofthePantheoncanbesttellus.
　　Religions，however，maybeabsorbed，buttheyneveraredisproved，andthestoriesoftheGreekmythology，spiritualisedbythepurifyinginfluenceofChristianity，reappearinmanyofthesouthernpartsofEuropeinourownday.TheoldfablethattheGreekgodstookservicewiththenewreligionunderassumednameshasmoretruthinitthanthemanycaretodiscover.
　　Havingnowtracedtheprogressofhistoricalcriticisminthespecialtreatmentofmythandlegend，Ishallproceedtoinvestigatetheforminwhichthesamespiritmanifesteditselfasregardswhatonemaytermsecularhistoryandsecularhistorians.
　　Thefieldtraversedwillbefoundtobeinsomerespectsthesame，butthementalattitude，thespirit，themotiveofinvestigationareallchanged.
　　TherewereheroesbeforethesonofAtreusandhistoriansbeforeHerodotus，yetthelatterisrightlyhailedasthefatherofhistory，forinhimwediscovernotmerelytheempiricalconnectionofcauseandeffect，butthatconstantreferencetoLaws，whichisthecharacteristicofthehistorianproper.
　　Forallhistorymustbeessentiallyuniversal;notinthesenseofcomprisingallthesynchronouseventsofthepasttime，butthroughtheuniversalityoftheprinciplesemployed.AndthegreatconceptionswhichunifytheworkofHerodotusaresuchasevenmodernthoughthasnotyetrejected.TheimmediategovernmentoftheworldbyGod，thenemesisandpunishmentwhichsinandprideinvariablybringwiththem，therevealingofGod’spurposetoHispeoplebysignsandomens，bymiraclesandbyprophecy;thesearetoHerodotusthelawswhichgovernthephenomenaofhistory.Heisessentiallythetypeofsupernaturalhistorian;hiseyesareeverstrainedtodiscerntheSpiritofGodmovingoverthefaceofthewatersoflife;heismoreconcernedwithfinalthanwithefficientcauses.
　　YetwecandiscerninhimtheriseofthatHISTORICSENSEwhichistherationalantecedentofthescienceofhistoricalcriticism，the[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]，tousethewordsofaGreekwriter，asopposedtothatwhichcomeseither[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced].
　　HehaspassedthroughthevalleyoffaithandhascaughtaglimpseofthesunlitheightsofReason;butlikeallthosewho，whileacceptingthesupernatural，yetattempttoapplythecanonsofrationalism，heisessentiallyinconsistent.ForthebetterapprehensionofthecharacterofthishistoricsenseinHerodotusitwillbenecessarytoexamineatsomelengththevariousformsofcriticisminwhichitmanifestsitself.
　　SuchfabulousstoriesasthatofthePhoenix，ofthegoat—footedmen，oftheheadlessbeingswitheyesintheirbreasts，ofthemenwhosleptsixmonthsintheyear（[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]），ofthewer—wolfoftheNeuri，andthelike，areentirelyrejectedbyhimasbeingopposedtotheordinaryexperienceoflife，andtothosenaturallawswhoseuniversalinfluencetheearlyGreekphysicalphilosophershadalreadymadeknowntotheworldofthought.Otherlegends，suchasthesucklingofCyrusbyabitch，orthefeather—rainofnorthernEurope，arerationalisedandexplainedintoawoman’snameandafallofsnow.
　　ThesupernaturaloriginoftheScythiannation，fromtheunionofHerculesandthemonstrousEchidna，issetasidebyhimforthemoreprobableaccountthattheywereanomadtribedrivenbytheMassagetaefromAsia;andheappealstothelocalnamesoftheircountryasproofofthefactthattheKimmeriansweretheoriginalpossessors.
　　ButinthecaseofHerodotusitwillbemoreinstructivetopassonfrompointslikethesetothosequestionsofgeneralprobability，thetrueapprehensionofwhichdependsratheronacertainqualityofmindthanonanypossibilityofformulatedrules，questionswhichformnounimportantpartofscientifichistory;foritmustberememberedalwaysthatthecanonsofhistoricalcriticismareessentiallydifferentfromthoseofjudicialevidence，fortheycannot，likethelatter，bemadeplaintoeveryordinarymind，butappealtoacertainhistoricalfacultyfoundedontheexperienceoflife.Besides，therulesforthereceptionofevidenceincourtsoflawarepurelystationary，whilethescienceofhistoricalprobabilityisessentiallyprogressive，andchangeswiththeadvancingspiritofeachage.
　　Now，ofallthespeculativecanonsofhistoricalcriticism，noneismoreimportantthanthatwhichrestsonpsychologicalprobability.
　　Arguingfromhisknowledgeofhumannature，HerodotusrejectsthepresenceofHelenwithinthewallsofTroy.Hadshebeenthere，hesays，Priamandhiskinsmenwouldneverhavebeensomad（[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]）asnottogiveherup，whentheyandtheirchildrenandtheircitywereinsuchperil（ii.118）;andasregardstheauthorityofHomer，someincidentalpassagesinhispoemshowthatheknewofHelen’ssojourninEgyptduringthesiege，butselectedtheotherstoryasbeingamoresuitablemotiveforanepic.SimilarlyhedoesnotbelievethattheAlcmaeonidaefamily，afamilywhohadalwaysbeenthehatersoftyranny（[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]），andtowhom，evenmorethantoHarmodiosandAristogeiton，Athensoweditsliberty，wouldeverhavebeensotreacherousastoholdupashieldafterthebattleofMarathonasasignalforthePersianhosttofallonthecity.A
　　shield，heacknowledges，washeldup，butitcouldnotpossiblyhavebeendonebysuchfriendsoflibertyasthehouseofAlcmaeon;
　　norwillhebelievethatagreatkinglikeRhampsinituswouldhavesenthisdaughter[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced].
　　Elsewherehearguesfrommoregeneralconsiderationsofprobability;aGreekcourtesanlikeRhodopiswouldhardlyhavebeenrichenoughtobuildapyramid，and，besides，onchronologicalgroundsthestoryisimpossible（ii.134）.
　　Inanotherpassage（ii.63），aftergivinganaccountoftheforcibleentryofthepriestsofAresintothechapelofthegod’smother，whichseemstohavebeenasortofreligiousfactionfightwherestickswerefreelyused（[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]），’Ifeelsure，’hesays，’thatmanyofthemdiedfromgettingtheirheadsbroken，notwithstandingtheassertionsoftheEgyptianprieststothecontrary.’ThereisalsosomethingcharminglynaiveintheaccounthegivesofthecelebratedGreekswimmerwhodivedadistanceofeightystadiatogivehiscountrymenwarningofthePersianadvance.’If，however，’hesays，’Imayofferanopiniononthesubject，Iwouldsaythathecameinaboat.’
　　Thereis，ofcourse，somethingalittletrivialinsomeoftheinstancesIhavequoted;butinawriterlikeHerodotus，whostandsontheborderlandbetweenfaithandrationalism，onelikestonoteeventhemostminuteinstancesoftheriseofthecriticalandscepticalspiritofinquiry.
　　Howreallystrange，atbase，itwaswithhimmay，Ithink，beshownbyareferencetothosepassageswhereheappliesrationalisticteststomattersconnectedwithreligion.Henowhere，indeed，grappleswiththemoralandscientificdifficultiesoftheGreekBible;andwhereherejectsasincrediblethemarvellousachievementsofHerculesinEgypt，hedoessoontheexpressgroundsthathehadnotyetbeenreceivedamongthegods，andsowasstillsubjecttotheordinaryconditionsofmortallife（[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]）.
　　Evenwithintheselimits，however，hisreligiousconscienceseemstohavebeentroubledatsuchdaringrationalism，andthepassage（ii.45）concludeswithapioushopethatGodwillpardonhimforhavinggonesofar，thegreatrationalisticpassagebeing，ofcourse，thatinwhichherejectsthemythicalaccountofthefoundationofDodona.’Howcanadovespeakwithahumanvoice？’
　　heasks，andrationalisesthebirdintoaforeignprincess.
　　SimilarlyheseemsmoreinclinedtobelievethatthegreatstormatthebeginningofthePersianWarceasedfromordinaryatmosphericcauses，andnotinconsequenceoftheincantationsoftheMAGIANS.
　　HecallsMelampos，whomthemajorityoftheGreekslookedonasaninspiredprophet，’aclevermanwhohadacquiredforhimselftheartofprophecy’;andasregardsthemiracletoldoftheAEginetanstatuesoftheprimevaldeitiesofDamiaandAuxesia，thattheyfellontheirkneeswhenthesacrilegiousAtheniansstrovetocarrythemoff，’anyonemaybelieveit，’hesays，’wholikes，butasformyself，Iplacenocredenceinthetale.’
　　Somuchthenfortherationalisticspiritofhistoricalcriticism，asfarasitappearsexplicitlyintheworksofthisgreatandphilosophicwriter;butforanadequateappreciationofhispositionwemustalsonotehowconscioushewasofthevalueofdocumentaryevidence，oftheuseofinscriptions，oftheimportanceofthepoetsasthrowinglightonmannersandcustomsaswellasonhistoricalincidents.Nowriterofanyagehasmorevividlyrecognisedthefactthathistoryisamatterofevidence，andthatitisasnecessaryforthehistoriantostatehisauthorityasitistoproduceone’switnessesinacourtoflaw.
　　While，however，wecandiscerninHerodotustheriseofanhistoricsense，wemustnotblindourselvestothelargeamountofinstanceswherehereceivessupernaturalinfluencesaspartoftheordinaryforcesoflife.ComparedtoThucydides，whosucceededhiminthedevelopmentofhistory，heappearsalmostlikeamediaevalwritermatchedwithamodernrationalist.For，contemporarythoughtheywere，betweenthesetwoauthorsthereisaninfinitechasmofthought.
　　Theessentialdifferenceoftheirmethodsmaybebestillustratedfromthosepassageswheretheytreatofthesamesubject.TheexecutionoftheSpartanheralds，NicolaosandAneristos，duringthePeloponnesianWarisregardedbyHerodotusasoneofthemostsupernaturalinstancesoftheworkingsofnemesisandthewrathofanoutragedhero;whilethelengthenedsiegeandultimatefallofTroywasbroughtaboutbytheavenginghandofGoddesiringtomanifestuntomenthemightypenaltieswhichalwaysfollowuponmightysins.ButThucydideseitherseesnot，ordesiresnottosee，ineitheroftheseeventsthefingerofProvidence，orthepunishmentofwickeddoers.ThedeathoftheheraldsismerelyanAthenianretaliationforsimilaroutragescommittedbytheoppositeside;thelongagonyofthetenyears’siegeisduemerelytothewantofagoodcommissariatintheGreekarmy;whilethefallofthecityistheresultofaunitedmilitaryattackconsequentonagoodsupplyofprovisions.
　　Now，itistobeobservedthatinthislatterpassage，aswellaselsewhere，Thucydidesisinnosenseofthewordascepticasregardshisattitudetowardsthetruthoftheseancientlegends.
　　AgamemnonandAtreus，TheseusandEurystheus，evenMinos，aboutwhomHerodotushassomedoubts，aretohimasrealpersonagesasAlcibiadesorGylippus.Thepointsinhishistoricalcriticismofthepastare，first，hisrejectionofallextra—naturalinterference，and，secondly，theattributingtotheseancientheroesthemotivesandmodesofthoughtofhisownday.Thepresentwastohimthekeytotheexplanationofthepast，asitwastothepredictionofthefuture.
　　Now，asregardshisattitudetowardsthesupernaturalheisatonewithmodernscience.Wetooknowthat，justastheprimevalcoal—
　　bedsrevealtousthetracesofrain—dropsandotheratmosphericphenomenasimilartothoseofourownday，so，inestimatingthehistoryofthepast，theintroductionofnoforcemustbeallowedwhoseworkingswecannotobserveamongthephenomenaaroundus.Tolaydowncanonsofultra—historicalcredibilityfortheexplanationofeventswhichhappentohaveprecededusbyafewthousandyears，isasthoroughlyunscientificasitistointerminglepreternaturalingeologicaltheories.
　　Whateverthecanonsofartmaybe，nodifficultyinhistoryissogreatastowarranttheintroductionofaspiritofspirit[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]，inthesenseofaviolationofthelawsofnature.
　　Upontheotherpoint，however，Thucydidesfallsintoananachronism.Torefusetoallowtheworkingsofchivalrousandself—denyingmotivesamongtheknightsoftheTrojancrusade，becausehesawnoneinthefaction—lovingAthenianofhisownday，istoshowanentireignoranceofthevariouscharacteristicsofhumannaturedevelopingunderdifferentcircumstances，andtodenytoaprimitivechieftainlikeAgamemnonthatauthorityfoundedonopinion，towhichwegivethenameofdivineright，istofallintoanhistoricalerrorquiteasgrossasattributingtoAtreusthecourtingofthepopulace（[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]）
　　withaviewtotheMyceneanthrone.
　　ThegeneralmethodofhistoricalcriticismpursuedbyThucydideshavingbeenthusindicated，itremainstoproceedmoreintodetailasregardsthoseparticularpointswhereheclaimsforhimselfamorerationalmethodofestimatingevidencethaneitherthepublicorhispredecessorspossessed.
　　’Solittlepains，’heremarks，’dothevulgartakeintheinvestigationoftruth，satisfiedwiththeirpreconceivedopinions，’thatthemajorityoftheGreeksbelieveinaPitanatecohortoftheSpartanarmyandinadoublevotebeingtheprerogativeoftheSpartankings，neitherofwhichopinionshasanyfoundationinfact.Butthechiefpointonwhichhelaysstressasevincingthe’uncriticalwaywithwhichmenreceivelegends，eventhelegendsoftheirowncountry，’istheentirebaselessnessofthecommonAtheniantraditioninwhichHarmodiosandAristogeitonwererepresentedasthepatrioticliberatorsofAthensfromthePeisistratidtyranny.Sofar，hepointsout，fromtheloveoffreedombeingtheirmotive，bothofthemwereinfluencedbymerelypersonalconsiderations，AristogeitonbeingjealousofHipparchos’
　　attentiontoHarmodios，thenabeautifulboyintheflowerofGreekloveliness，whilethelatter’sindignationwasarousedbyaninsultofferedtohissisterbytheprince.
　　Theirmotives，then，werepersonalrevenge，whiletheresultoftheirconspiracyservedonlytorivetmoretightlythechainsofservitudewhichboundAthenstothePeisistratidhouse，forHipparchos，whomtheykilled，wasonlythetyrant’syoungerbrother，andnotthetyranthimself.
　　ToprovehistheorythatHippiaswastheelder，heappealstotheevidenceaffordedbyapublicinscriptioninwhichhisnameoccursimmediatelyafterthatofhisfather，apointwhichhethinksshowsthathewastheeldest，andsotheheir.Thisviewhefurthercorroboratesbyanotherinscription，onthealtarofApollo，whichmentionsthechildrenofHippiasandnotthoseofhisbrothers;
　　’foritwasnaturalfortheeldesttobemarriedfirst’;andbesidesthis，onthescoreofgeneralprobabilityhepointsoutthat，hadHippiasbeentheyounger，hewouldnothavesoeasilyobtainedthetyrannyonthedeathofHipparchos.
　　Now，whatisimportantinThucydides，asevincedinthetreatmentoflegendgenerally，isnottheresultshearrivedat，butthemethodbywhichheworks.Thefirstgreatrationalistichistorian，hemaybesaidtohavepavedthewayforallthosewhofollowedafterhim，thoughitmustalwaysberememberedthat，whilethetotalabsenceinhispagesofallthemysticalparaphernaliaofthesupernaturaltheoryoflifeisanadvanceintheprogressofrationalism，andanerainscientifichistory，whoseimportancecouldneverbeover—estimated，yetwefindalongwithitatotalabsenceofanymentionofthosevarioussocialandeconomicalforceswhichformsuchimportantfactorsintheevolutionoftheworld，andtowhichHerodotusrightlygavegreatprominenceinhisimmortalwork.ThehistoryofThucydidesisessentiallyone—sidedandincomplete.Theintricatedetailsofsiegesandbattles，subjectswithwhichthehistorianproperhasreallynothingtodoexceptsofarastheymaythrowlightonthespiritoftheage，wewouldreadilyexchangeforsomenoticeoftheconditionofprivatesocietyinAthens，ortheinfluenceandpositionofwomen.
　　Thereisanadvanceinthemethodofhistoricalcriticism;thereisanadvanceintheconceptionandmotiveofhistoryitself;forinThucydideswemaydiscernthatnaturalreactionagainsttheintrusionofdidacticandtheologicalconsiderationsintothesphereofthepureintellect，thespiritofwhichmaybefoundintheEuripideantreatmentoftragedyandthelaterschoolsofart，aswellasinthePlatonicconceptionofscience.
　　History，nodoubt，hassplendidlessonsforourinstruction，justasallgoodartcomestousastheheraldofthenoblesttruth.
　　But，tosetbeforeeitherthepainterorthehistoriantheinculcationofmorallessonsasanaimtobeconsciouslypursued，istomissentirelythetruemotiveandcharacteristicbothofartandhistory，whichisintheonecasethecreationofbeauty，intheotherthediscoveryofthelawsoftheevolutionofprogress：
　　ILNEFAUTDEMANDERDEL’ARTQUEL’ART，DUPASSEQUELEPASSE.
　　HerodotuswrotetoillustratethewonderfulwaysofProvidenceandthenemesisthatfallsonsin，andhisworkisagoodexampleofthetruththatnothingcandispensewithcriticismsomuchasamoralaim.Thucydideshasnocreedtopreach，nodoctrinetoprove.Heanalysestheresultswhichfollowinevitablyfromcertainantecedents，inorderthatonarecurrenceofthesamecrisismenmayknowhowtoact.
　　Hisobjectwastodiscoverthelawsofthepastsoastoserveasalighttoilluminethefuture.Wemustnotconfusetherecognitionoftheutilityofhistorywithanyideasofadidacticaim.TwopointsmoreinThucydidesremainforourconsideration：histreatmentoftheriseofGreekcivilisation，andoftheprimitiveconditionofHellas，aswellasthequestionhowfarcanhebesaidreallytohaverecognisedtheexistenceoflawsregulatingthecomplexphenomenaoflife.
　　CHAPTERIII
　　THEinvestigationintothetwogreatproblemsoftheoriginofsocietyandthephilosophyofhistoryoccupiessuchanimportantpositionintheevolutionofGreekthoughtthat，toobtainanyclearviewoftheworkingsofthecriticalspirit，itwillbenecessarytotraceatsomelengththeirriseandscientificdevelopmentasevincednotmerelyintheworksofhistoriansproper，butalsointhephilosophicaltreatisesofPlatoandAristotle.Theimportantpositionwhichthesetwogreatthinkersoccupyintheprogressofhistoricalcriticismcanhardlybeover—
　　estimated.IdonotmeanmerelyasregardstheirtreatmentoftheGreekBible，andPlato’sendeavourstopurgesacredhistoryofitsimmoralitybytheapplicationofethicalcanonsatthetimewhenAristotlewasbeginningtounderminethebasisofmiraclesbyhisscientificconceptionoflaw，butwithreferencetothesetwowiderquestionsoftheriseofcivilinstitutionsandthephilosophyofhistory.
　　Andfirst，asregardsthecurrenttheoriesoftheprimitiveconditionofsociety，therewasawidedivergenceofopinioninHellenicsociety，justasthereisnow.Forwhilethemajorityoftheorthodoxpublic，ofwhomHesiodmaybetakenastherepresentative，lookedback，asagreatmanyofourowndaystilldo，toafabulousageofinnocenthappiness，aBELL’ETEDELL’
　　AURO，wheresinanddeathwereunknownandmenandwomenwerelikeGods，theforemostmenofintellectsuchasAristotleandPlato，AEschylusandmanyoftheotherpoets（1）sawinprimitiveman’afewsmallsparksofhumanitypreservedonthetopsofmountainsaftersomedeluge，’’withoutanideaofcities，governmentsorlegislation，’’livingthelivesofwildbeastsinsunlesscaves，’
　　’theironlylawbeingthesurvivalofthefittest.’
　　Andthis，too，wastheopinionofThucydides，whoseARCHAEOLOGIAasitiscontainsamostvaluabledisquisitionontheearlyconditionofHellas，whichitwillbenecessarytoexamineatsomelength.
　　Now，asregardsthemeansemployedgenerallybyThucydidesfortheelucidationofancienthistory，Ihavealreadypointedouthowthat，whileacknowledgingthat’itisthetendencyofeverypoettoexaggerate，asitisofeverychroniclertoseektobeattractiveattheexpenseoftruth;heyetassumesinthethoroughlyeuhemeristicway，thatundertheveilofmythandlegendtheredoesyetexistarationalbasisoffactdiscoverablebythemethodofrejectingallsupernaturalinterferenceaswellasanyextraordinarymotivesinfluencingtheactors.Itisincompleteaccordancewiththisspiritthatheappeals，forinstance，totheHomericepithetof[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]，asappliedtoCorinth，asaproofoftheearlycommercialprosperityofthatcity;tothefactofthegenericnameHELLENESnotoccurringintheILIADasacorroborationofhistheoryoftheessentiallydisunitedcharacteroftheprimitiveGreektribes;andhearguesfromtheline’O’ermanyislandsandallArgosruled，’asappliedtoAgamemnon，thathisforcesmusthavebeenpartiallynaval，’forAgamemnon’swasacontinentalpower，andhecouldnothavebeenmasterofanybuttheadjacentislands，andthesewouldnotbemanybutthroughthepossessionofafleet.’
　　Anticipatinginsomemeasurethecomparativemethodofresearch，hearguesfromthefactofthemorebarbarousGreektribes，suchastheAEtoliansandAcarnanians，stillcarryingarmsinhisownday，thatthiscustomwasthecaseoriginallyoverthewholecountry.
　　’Thefact，’hesays，’thatthepeopleinthesepartsofHellasarestilllivingintheoldwaypointstoatimewhenthesamemodeoflifewasequallycommontoall.’Similarly，inanotherpassage，heshowshowacorroborationofhistheoryoftherespectablecharacterofpiracyinancientdaysisaffordedby’thehonourwithwhichsomeoftheinhabitantsofthecontinentstillregardasuccessfulmarauder，’aswellasbythefactthatthequestion，’Areyouapirate？’isacommonfeatureofprimitivesocietyasshowninthepoets;andfinally，afterobservinghowtheoldGreekcustomofwearingbeltsingymnasticcontestsstillsurvivedamongthemoreuncivilisedAsiatictribes，heobservesthattherearemanyotherpointsinwhichalikenessmaybeshownbetweenthelifeoftheprimitiveHellenesandthatofthebarbariansto—day.’
　　Asregardstheevidenceaffordedbyancientremains，whileadducingasaproofoftheinsecurecharacterofearlyGreeksocietythefactoftheircities（2）beingalwaysbuiltatsomedistancefromthesea，yetheiscarefultowarnus，andthecautionoughttobeborneinmindbyallarchaeologists，thatwehavenorighttoconcludefromthescantyremainsofanycitythatitslegendarygreatnessinprimitivetimeswasamereexaggeration.’Wearenotjustified，’hesays，’inrejectingthetraditionofthemagnitudeoftheTrojanarmament，becauseMycenaeandtheothertownsofthatageseemtoussmallandinsignificant.For，ifLacedaemonwastobecomedesolate，anyantiquarianjudgingmerelyfromitsruinswouldbeinclinedtoregardthetaleoftheSpartanhegemonyasanidlemyth;forthecityisamerecollectionofvillagesaftertheoldfashionofHellas，andhasnoneofthosesplendidpublicbuildingsandtempleswhichcharacteriseAthens，andwhoseremains，inthecaseofthelattercity，wouldbesomarvellousastoleadthesuperficialobserverintoanexaggeratedestimateoftheAthenianpower.’Nothingcanbemorescientificthanthearchaeologicalcanonslaiddown，whosetruthisstrikinglyillustratedtoanyonewhohascomparedthewastefieldsoftheEurotasplainwiththelordlymonumentsoftheAthenianacropolis.
　　（3）
　　Ontheotherhand，Thucydidesisquiteconsciousofthevalueofthepositiveevidenceaffordedbyarchaeologicalremains.Heappeals，forinstance，tothecharacterofthearmourfoundintheDeliantombsandthepeculiarmodeofsepulture，ascorroborationofhistheoryofthepredominanceoftheCarianelementamongtheprimitiveislanders，andtotheconcentrationofallthetempleseitherintheAcropolis，orinitsimmediatevicinity，tothenameof[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]bywhichitwasstillknown，andtotheextraordinarysanctityofthespringofwaterthere，asproofthattheprimitivecitywasoriginallyconfinedtothecitadel，andthedistrictimmediatelybeneathit（ii.16）.Andlastly，intheveryopeningofhishistory，anticipatingoneofthemostscientificofmodernmethods，hepointsouthowinearlystatesofcivilisationimmensefertilityofthesoiltendstofavourthepersonalaggrandisementofindividuals，andsotostopthenormalprogressofthecountrythrough’theriseoffactions，thatendlesssourceofruin’;andalsobytheallurementsitofferstoaforeigninvader，tonecessitateacontinualchangeofpopulation，oneimmigrationfollowingonanother.HeexemplifieshistheorybypointingtotheendlesspoliticalrevolutionsthatcharacterisedArcadia，ThessalyandBoeotia，thethreerichestspotsinGreece，aswellasbythenegativeinstanceoftheundisturbedstateinprimitivetimeofAttica，whichwasalwaysremarkableforthedrynessandpovertyofitssoil.
　　Now，whileundoubtedlyinthesepassageswemayrecognisethefirstanticipationofmanyofthemostmodernprinciplesofresearch，wemustrememberhowessentiallylimitedistherangeoftheARCHAEOLOGIA，andhownotheoryatallisofferedonthewiderquestionsofthegeneralconditionsoftheriseandprogressofhumanity，aproblemwhichisfirstscientificallydiscussedintheREPUBLICofPlato.
　　Andattheoutsetitmustbepremisedthat，whilethestudyofprimitivemanisanessentiallyinductivescience，restingratherontheaccumulationofevidencethanonspeculation，amongtheGreeksitwasprosecutedratherondeductiveprinciples.
　　Thucydidesdid，indeed，availhimselfoftheopportunitiesaffordedbytheunequaldevelopmentofcivilisationinhisowndayinGreece，andintheplacesIhavepointedoutseemstohaveanticipatedthecomparativemethod.ButwedonotfindlaterwritersavailingthemselvesofthewonderfullyaccurateandpicturesqueaccountsgivenbyHerodotusofthecustomsofsavagetribes.Totakeoneinstance，whichbearsagooddealonmodernquestions，wefindintheworksofthisgreattravellerthegradualandprogressivestepsinthedevelopmentofthefamilylifeclearlymanifestedinthemeregregariousherdingtogetheroftheAgathyrsi，theirprimitivekinsmanshipthroughwomenincommon，andtheriseofafeelingofpaternityfromastateofpolyandry.Thistribestoodatthattimeonthatborderlandbetweenumbilicalrelationshipandthefamilywhichhasbeensuchadifficultpointformodernanthropologiststofind.
　　Theancientauthors，however，areunanimousininsistingthatthefamilyistheultimateunitofsociety，though，asIhavesaid，aninductivestudyofprimitiveraces，oreventheaccountsgivenofthembyHerodotus，wouldhaveshownthemthatthe[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]ofapersonalhousehold，tousePlato’sexpression，isreallyamostcomplexnotionappearingalwaysinalatestageofcivilisation，alongwithrecognitionofprivatepropertyandtherightsofindividualism.
　　Philologyalso，whichinthehandsofmoderninvestigatorshasprovedsuchasplendidinstrumentofresearch，wasinancientdaysstudiedonprinciplestoounscientifictobeofmuchuse.
　　HerodotuspointsoutthatthewordERIDANOSisessentiallyGreekincharacter，thatconsequentlytheriversupposedtorunroundtheworldisprobablyamereGreekinvention.Hisremarks，however，onlanguagegenerally，asinthecaseofPIROMISandtheendingofthePersiannames，showonwhatunsoundbasishisknowledgeoflanguagerested.
　　IntheBACCHAEofEuripidesthereisanextremelyinterestingpassageinwhichtheimmoralstoriesoftheGreekmythologyareaccountedforontheprincipleofthatmisunderstandingofwordsandmetaphorstowhichmodernsciencehasgiventhenameofadiseaseoflanguage.InanswertotheimpiousrationalismofPentheus—asortofmodernPhilistine—Teiresias，whomaybetermedtheMaxMulleroftheThebancycle，pointsoutthatthestoryofDionysusbeinginclosedinZeus’thighreallyarosefromthelinguisticconfusionbetween[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]and[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced].
　　Onthewhole，however—forIhavequotedthesetwoinstancesonlytoshowtheunscientificcharacterofearlyphilology—wemaysaythatthisimportantinstrumentinrecreatingthehistoryofthepastwasnotreallyusedbytheancientsasameansofhistoricalcriticism.Nordidtheancientsemploythatothermethod，usedtosuchadvantageinourownday，bywhichinthesymbolismandformulasofanadvancedcivilisationwecandetecttheunconscioussurvivalofancientcustoms：for，whereasintheshamcaptureofthebrideatamarriagefeast，whichwascommoninWalestillarecenttime，wecandiscernthelingeringreminiscenceofthebarbaroushabitofexogamy，theancientwriterssawonlythedeliberatecommemorationofanhistoricalevent.
　　AristotledoesnottellusbywhatmethodhediscoveredthattheGreeksusedtobuytheirwivesinprimitivetimes，but，judgingbyhisgeneralprinciples，itwasprobablythroughsomelegendormythonthesubjectwhichlastedtohisownday，andnot，aswewoulddo，byarguingbackfromthemarriagepresentsgiventothebrideandherrelatives.（4）
　　Theoriginofthecommonproverb’worthsomanybeeves，’inwhichwediscerntheunconscioussurvivalofapurelypastoralstateofsocietybeforetheuseofmetalswasknown，isascribedbyPlutarchtothefactofTheseushavingcoinedmoneybearingabull’shead.
　　Similarly，theAmathusianfestival，inwhichayoungmanimitatedthelaboursofawomanintravail，isregardedbyhimasariteinstitutedinAriadne’shonour，andtheCarianadorationofasparagusasasimplecommemorationoftheadventureofthenymphPerigune.InthefirstoftheseWEdiscernthebeginningofagnationandkinsmanshipthroughthefather，whichstilllingersinthe’couvee’ofNewZealandtribes：whilethesecondisarelicofthetotemandfetishworshipofplants.
　　Now，inentireoppositiontothismoderninductiveprincipleofresearchstandsthephilosophicPlato，whoseaccountofprimitivemanisentirelyspeculativeanddeductive.
　　Theoriginofsocietyheascribestonecessity，themotherofallinventions，andimaginesthatindividualmanbegandeliberatelytoherdtogetheronaccountoftheadvantagesoftheprincipleofdivisionoflabourandtherenderingofmutualneed.
　　Itmust，however，beborneinmindthatPlato’sobjectinthiswholepassageintheREPUBLICwas，perhaps，notsomuchtoanalysetheconditionsofearlysocietyastoillustratetheimportanceofthedivisionoflabour，theshibbolethofhispoliticaleconomy，byshowingwhatapowerfulfactoritmusthavebeeninthemostprimitiveaswellasinthemostcomplexstatesofsociety;justasintheLAWShealmostrewritesentirelythehistoryofthePeloponnesusinordertoprovethenecessityofabalanceofpower.
　　Hesurely，Imean，musthaverecognisedhimselfhowessentiallyincompletehistheorywasintakingnoaccountoftheoriginoffamilylife，thepositionandinfluenceofwomen，andothersocialquestions，aswellasindisregardingthosedeepermotivesofreligion，whicharesuchimportantfactorsinearlycivilisation，andwhoseinfluenceAristotleseemstohaveclearlyapprehended，whenhesaysthattheaimofprimitivesocietywasnotmerelylifebutthehigherlife，andthatintheoriginofsocietyutilityisnotthesolemotive，butthatthereissomethingspiritualinitif，atleast，’spiritual’willbringoutthemeaningofthatcomplexexpression[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced].
　　Otherwise，thewholeaccountintheREPUBLICofprimitivemanwillalwaysremainasawarningagainsttheintrusionofAPRIORI
　　speculationsinthedomainappropriatetoinduction.
　　Now，Aristotle’stheoryoftheoriginofsociety，likehisphilosophyofethics，restsultimatelyontheprincipleoffinalcauses，notinthetheologicalmeaningofanaimortendencyimposedfromwithout，butinthescientificsenseoffunctioncorrespondingtoorgan.’Naturemakethnothinginvain’isthetextofAristotleinthisasinotherinquiries.Manbeingtheonlyanimalpossessedofthepowerofrationalspeechis，heasserts，bynatureintendedtobesocial，moresothanthebeeoranyothergregariousanimal.
　　Heis[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]，andthenationaltendencytowardshigherformsofperfectionbringsthe’armedsavagewhousedtosellhiswife’tothefreeindependenceofafreestate，andtothe[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]，whichwasthetestoftruecitizenship.Thestagespassedthroughbyhumanitystartwiththefamilyfirstastheultimateunit.
　　Theconglomerationoffamiliesformsavillageruledbythatpatriarchalswaywhichistheoldestformofgovernmentintheworld，asisshownbythefactthatallmencountittobetheconstitutionofheaven，andthevillagesaremergedintothestate，andheretheprogressionstops.
　　ForAristotle，likeallGreekthinkers，foundhisidealwithinthewallsofthe[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]，yetperhapsinhisremarkthataunitedGreecewouldruletheworldwemaydiscernsomeanticipationofthat’federalunionoffreestatesintooneconsolidatedempire’which，morethanthe[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]，istooureyestheultimatelyperfectpolity.
　　HowfarAristotlewasjustifiedinregardingthefamilyastheultimateunit，withthematerialsaffordedtohimbyGreekliterature，Ihavealreadynoticed.Besides，Aristotle，Imayremark，hadhereflectedonthemeaningofthatAthenianlawwhich，whileprohibitingmarriagewithauterinesister，permitteditwithasister—german，oronthecommontraditioninAthensthatbeforethetimeofCecropschildrenboretheirmothers’names，oronsomeoftheSpartanregulations，couldhardlyhavefailedtoseetheuniversalityofkinsmanshipthroughwomeninearlydays，andthelateappearanceofmonandry.Yet，whilehemissedthispoint，incommon，itmustbeacknowledged，withmanymodernwriters，suchasSirHenryMaine，itisessentiallyasanexplorerofinductiveinstancesthatwerecognisehisimprovementonPlato.Thetreatise[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]，diditremaintousinitsentirety，wouldhavebeenoneofthemostvaluablelandmarksintheprogressofhistoricalcriticism，andthefirstscientifictreatiseonthescienceofcomparativepolitics.
　　Afewfragmentsstillremaintous，inoneofwhichwefindAristotleappealingtotheauthorityofanancientinscriptiononthe’DiskofIphitus，’oneofthemostcelebratedGreekantiquities，tocorroboratehistheoryoftheLycurgeanrevivaloftheOlympianfestival;whilehisenormousresearchisevincedintheelaborateexplanationhegivesofthehistoricaloriginofproverbssuchas[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]，ofreligioussongslikethe[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]oftheBotticeanvirgins，orthepraisesofloveandwar.
　　And，finally，itistobeobservedhowmuchwiderthanPlato’shistheoryoftheoriginofsocietyis.Theybothrestonapsychologicalbasis，butAristotle’srecognitionofthecapacityforprogressandthetendencytowardsahigherlifeshowshowmuchdeeperhisknowledgeofhumannaturewas.
　　Inimitationofthesetwophilosophers，Polybiusgivesanaccountoftheoriginofsocietyintheopeningtohisphilosophyofhistory.SomewhatinthespiritofPlato，heimaginesthatafteroneofthecyclicdelugeswhichsweepoffmankindatstatedperiodsandannihilateallpre—existingcivilisation，thefewsurvivingmembersofhumanitycoalesceformutualprotection，and，asinthecasewithordinaryanimals，theonemostremarkableforphysicalstrengthiselectedking.Inashorttime，owingtotheworkingsofsympathyandthedesireofapprobation，themoralqualitiesbegintomaketheirappearance，andintellectualinsteadofbodilyexcellencebecomesthequalificationforsovereignty.
　　Otherpoints，astheriseoflawandthelike，aredweltoninasomewhatmodernspirit，andalthoughPolybiusseemsnottohaveemployedtheinductivemethodofresearchinthisquestion，orrather，Ishouldsay，ofthehierarchicalorderoftherationalprogressofideasinlife，heisnotfarremovedfromwhatthelaboriousinvestigationsofmoderntravellershavegivenus.
　　And，indeed，asregardstheworkingofthespeculativefacultyinthecreationofhistory，itisinallrespectsmarvelloushowthatthemosttruthfulaccountsofthepassagefrombarbarismtocivilisationinancientliteraturecomefromtheworksofpoets.
　　TheelaborateresearchesofMr.TylorandSirJohnLubbockhavedonelittlemorethanverifythetheoriesputforwardinthePROMETHEUSBOUNDandtheDENATURARERUM;yetneitherAEschylusnorLucretiasfollowedinthemodernpath，butratherattainedtotruthbyacertainalmostmysticpowerofcreativeimagination，suchaswenowseektobanishfromscienceasadangerouspower，thoughtoitscienceseemstoowemanyofitsmostsplendidgeneralities.（5）
　　Leavingthenthequestionoftheoriginofsocietyastreatedbytheancients，Ishallnowturntotheotherandthemoreimportantquestionofhowfartheymayhesaidtohaveattainedtowhatwecallthephilosophyofhistory.
　　Nowattheoutsetwemustnotethat，whiletheconceptionsoflawandorderhavebeenuniversallyreceivedasthegoverningprinciplesofthephenomenaofnatureinthesphereofphysicalscience，yettheirintrusionintothedomainofhistoryandthelifeofmanhasalwaysbeenmetwithastrongopposition，onthegroundoftheincalculablenatureoftwogreatforcesactingonhumanaction，acertaincauselessspontaneitywhichmencallfreewill，andtheextra—naturalinterferencewhichtheyattributeasaconstantattributetoGod.
　　Now，thatthereisascienceoftheapparentlyvariablephenomenaofhistoryisaconceptionwhichWEhaveperhapsonlyrecentlybeguntoappreciate;yet，likeallothergreatthoughts，itseemstohavecometotheGreekmindspontaneously，throughacertainsplendourofimagination，inthemorningtideoftheircivilisation，beforeinductiveresearchhadarmedthemwiththeinstrumentsofverification.ForIthinkitispossibletodiscerninsomeofthemysticspeculationsoftheearlyGreekthinkersthatdesiretodiscoverwhatisthat’invariableexistenceofwhichtherearevariablestates，’andtoincorporateitinsomeoneformulaoflawwhichmayservetoexplainthedifferentmanifestationsofallorganicbodies，MANINCLUDED，whichisthegermofthephilosophyofhistory;thegermindeedofanideaofwhichitisnottoomuchtosaythatonitanykindofhistoricalcriticism，worthyofthename，mustultimatelyrest.
　　Fortheveryfirstrequisiteforanyscientificconceptionofhistoryisthedoctrineofuniformsequence：inotherwords，thatcertaineventshavinghappened，certainothereventscorrespondingtothemwillhappenalso;thatthepastisthekeyofthefuture.
　　Nowatthebirthofthisgreatconceptionscience，itistrue，presided，yetreligionitwaswhichattheoutsetclotheditinitsowngarb，andfamiliarisedmenwithitbyappealingtotheirheartsfirstandthentotheirintellects;knowingthatatthebeginningofthingsitisthroughthemoralnature，andnotthroughtheintellectual，thatgreattruthsarespread.
　　SoinHerodotus，whomaybetakenasarepresentativeoftheorthodoxtoneofthought，theideaoftheuniformsequenceofcauseandeffectappearsunderthetheologicalaspectofNemesisandProvidence，whichisreallythescientificconceptionoflaw，onlyitisviewedfromanETHICALstandpoint.
　　NowinThucydidesthephilosophyofhistoryrestsontheprobability，whichtheuniformityofhumannatureaffordsus，thatthefuturewillinthecourseofhumanthingsresemblethepast，ifnotreproduceit.HeappearstocontemplatearecurrenceofthephenomenaofhistoryasequallycertainwithareturnoftheepidemicoftheGreatPlague.
　　NotwithstandingwhatGermancriticshavewrittenonthesubject，wemustbewareofregardingthisconceptionasamerereproductionofthatcyclictheoryofeventswhichseesintheworldnothingbuttheregularrotationofStropheandAntistrophe，intheeternalchoiroflifeanddeath.
　　For，inhisremarksontheexcessesoftheCorcyreanRevolution，Thucydidesdistinctlyrestshisideaoftherecurrenceofhistoryonthepsychologicalgroundsofthegeneralsamenessofmankind.
　　’Thesufferings，’hesays，’whichrevolutionentaileduponthecitiesweremanyandterrible，suchashaveoccurredandalwayswilloccursaslongashumannatureremainsthesame，thoughinasevererormilderform，andvaryingintheirsymptomsaccordingtothevarietyoftheparticularcases.
　　’Inpeaceandprosperitystatesandindividualshavebettersentiments，becausetheyarenotconfrontedwithimperiousnecessities;butwartakesawaytheeasysupplyofmen’swants，andsoprovesahardtaskmaster，whichbringsmostmen’scharacterstoalevelwiththeirfortunes.’