Thedistinctionbetweenacquiredpropertyandpropertyinheritedorreceivedfromkinsmen，andtheenlargedpowerofpartingwiththefirst，arefoundinmanybodiesofancientlaw——inourownearlylawamongothers。Therulethatalienations，otherwiseunlawful，maybemadeunderpressureofnecessity，isfoundinmanypartsofHindoolaw。Therulerequiringtheconsentofthecollectivebrotherhoodtoalienations，withmanyminorrulesofthispartofBrehonlaw，constantlyformspartofthecustomsofIndianandRussianvillage-communities；andthedutyoffollowingcommonpracticesoftillage，whichisthebequestfromthesecommunitieswhichlastedlongestintheGermaniccountries，isclassedbytheCorusBescna，alongwithMarriage，asoneofthefundamentalinstitutionsoftheirishpeople。
　　’AncientLawsofIreland，’iii。17。ButmuchthemoststrikingandunexpectedanalogiesintheBrehonlawonthesubjectofTribesmenandtheTribearethosewhichithaswiththeHindoolawofJointUndividedFamilies。UndertheBrahminicalIndianlaw，wheneveramemberofajointfamilyhasacquiredpropertythroughspecialscientificknowledgeorthepracticeofaliberalart，hedoesnotbringitintothecommonfund，unlesshisaccomplishmentswereobtainedthroughatraininggiventohimbyhisfamilyorattheirexpense。ThewholelawonthesubjectwasmuchconsideredinastrangecasewhicharosebeforetheHighCourtofMadras’MadrasHighCourtReports，’ii。56，whereajointfamilyclaimedthegainsofadancing-girl。ThedecisionoftheCourtisthussummarisedbytheReporter：’Theordinarygainsofsciencearedivisiblei。e。，theyarebroughtintohotchpotuponpartitionofanundividedestate，whensuchsciencehasbeenimpartedatthefamilyexpenseandacquiredwhilereceivingafamilymaintenance。Itisotherwisewhenthesciencehasbeenimpartedattheexpenseofpersonsnotmembersofthelearner’sfamily。’TheverycounterpartsoftheIndianruleandoftheIndianexceptionarefoundintheancientIrishlaw。’Ifthetribesmanbeaprofessionalman-thatis，ifthepropertybeacquiredbyjudicatureorpoetry，oranyprofessionwhatsoever——
　　heiscapableofgivingtwo-thirdsofittotheChurch……but，ifitwasthelawfulprofessionofhistribe，heshallnotgiveoftheemolumentofhisprofessionbutjustashecouldgiveofthelandofhistribe。’CorusBescna，’AncientLawsofIreland，’
　　iii。5。ItwillbeseenfromtheinstanceswhichIhavegiventhattherulesoftheIrishBrehonlawregulatingthepowerofindividualtribesmentoalienatetheirseparatepropertyanswertotherulesofIndianBrahminicallawwhichregulatethepowerofindividualmembersofajointfamilytoenjoyseparateproperty。Thedifferenceismaterial。TheHindoolawassumesthatcollectiveenjoymentbythewholebrotherhoodistherule，andittreatstheenjoymentofseparatepropertybyindividualbrethrenasanexception——anexception，Imayadd，roundwhichanenormousmassoflawhasnowclustered。Ontheotherhand，theBrehonlaw，sofarasitcanbeunderstood，seemstomereconcileablewithnootherassumptionthanthatindividualproprietaryrightshavegrownupandattainedsomestabilitywithinthecircleofthetribe。Theexerciseoftheserightsisatthesametimelimitedbythecontrollingpowersofthecollectivebrotherhoodoftribesmen；andtotheselast，astotheAgnaticKindredatRome，someultimaterightofsuccessionappearstobereserved。HencetheIrishlegalunitisnotpreciselyaJointFamily；iftheBrehonlawistobetrusted，ithasconsiderablylessofthe’naturalcommunism’whichcharacterisestheIndianinstitution。The’Fine’ofthetractsisconstantlyspokenofinconnectionwithlandedproperty，and，wheneveritissoconnected，Iimagineittohaveundergonesomeofthechangeswhichareconstantlybroughtaboutbycontactwiththeland，andIfigureittomyselfinthatcaseasaMarkorVillage-Community，inwhichtheideaspropertotheoldergroupoutofwhichitgrew，theJointFamily，havesurvivedinexceptionalstrengthItinthisrespectapproachestheRussianratherthantheIndiantypeofvillage-community。
　　The’JudgmentsofCo-Tenancy’isaBrehonlaw-tract，stillunpublishedatthetimeatwhichIwrite，andpresenting，initspresentstate，considerabledifficultiesofinterpretation。Itputs，attheoutset，thequestion，——’WhencedoesCo-Tenancyarise？’Theanswergivenis，’Fromseveralheirsandfromtheirincreasingontheland。’Thetractthengoesontoexplainthatthelandis，inthefirstyear，tobetilledbythekinsmenjustaseachpleases；thatinthesecondyeartheyaretoexchangelots；thatinthethirdyeartheboundariesaretobefixed；andthatthewholeprocessofseveranceistobeconsummatedinthetenthyear。Itrustitisnotapresumptuousconjecturethattheorderofchangehereindicatedismoretrustworthythanthetimefixedforeachofitsstages。Theperiodoftenyearsfortheentiretransitionfromcollectivetoseparatepropertyseemstomegreatlytooshort，andhardtoreconcilewithotherIrishevidence；andIsuggestthattheBrehonlawyer，attachedtotheinstitutionofseparateproperty，liketherestofhisclass，isdepictingratheranidealthananactualsetofarrangements。Theprocess，however，whichisheredescribed，ifitbespreadoveramuchlongerspaceoftime，isreallyinharmonywithallourknowledgeoftheriseandprogressofcultivatingcommunities。
　　FirstaJointFamily，composedof’severalheirsincreasingontheland，’isfoundtohavemadeasettlement。Intheearlieststagethevarioushouseholdsreclaimthelandwithoutsetrule。
　　Nextcomesthesystemofexchanginglots。Finally，theportionsoflandareenjoyedinseveralty。
　　Thereferencestotheancientcollectiveownershipandancientcollectiveenjoymentinthenon-legalIrishliteratureappeartobeveryrare。ButmyfriendMrWhitleyStokeshassuppliedmewithtwopassagesinpoint。The’LiberHymnorum，’
　　attributedtotheeleventhcentury，containsfolio5Athefollowingstatement：’NumerouswerethehumanbeingsinIrelandatthattimei。e。thetimeofthesonsofAedSlane，A。D。
　　658-694，andsuchwastheirnumberthattheyusedtogetonlythricenineridgesforeachmaninIreland，towit，nineofbog，andnineofsmootharable，andnineofwood。’AnotherIrishmanuscript，believedtodatefromthetwelfthcentury，the’LebornaHuidre，’Saysthat’therewasnotditch，norfence，norstone-wallroundland，tillcametheperiodofthesonsofAedSlane，butonlysmoothfields。Becauseoftheabundanceofthehouseholdsintheirperiod，thereforeitisthattheyintroducedboundariesinIreland。Thesecuriousstatementscan，ofcourse，onlyberegardedasauthorityfortheexistence，atthetimewhentheywerepenned，ofabeliefthatachangefromasystemofcollectivetoasystemofrestrictedenjoymenthadoccurredatsomeperiodorotherinIreland，andofatraditionrespectingthedateofthechange。Butitisinstructivetofindbothofthemattributingittothegrowthofpopulation，andanespecialinterestattachestotheaccountgiveninthe’LiberHymnorum’ofthenewerdistributionoflandwhichwasthoughttohavetakentheplaceofsomethingolder。Theperiodicalallotmenttoeachhouseholdofadefiniteportionofbogland，woodland，andarablelandwearsastrongresemblancetotheapportionmentofpastureandwoodandarablelandwhichstillgoesoninourdayunderthecommunalrulesoftheSwissAllmendenseeLaveleye，’P。ets。F。P。，’pp。268etseq。，andwhichisanundoubtedlegacyfromtheancientconstitutionofcertainSwissCantonsasTeutonicHundreds。
　　PropertyinLand，whereverithasgrownoutofthegradualdissolutionoftheancientcultivatingcommunities，hasmanycharacteristicswhichdistinguishitfromtheformoflandedpropertywithwhichEnglishmenandmenofEnglishracearebestacquainted。Theareawithinwhichthislastformofpropertyisthesoleordominantkindofownershipisnowmuchlargerthanitwas，throughitsdiffusionoverallNorthAmerica，exceptMexico，andoverallcoloniessettledforthefirsttimebyEnglishmen，butournearlyexclusivefamiliaritywithithasled，Ithink，toourverycommonlyover-estimatingtheextenttowhichitprevailsovertheworld，andevenoverWesternEurope。Itsparentagemaybetraced，nottothedecayingauthorityoftheTribeovertheseveraltiesofthetribesmen，buttotheever-increasingauthorityoftheChief，firstoverhisowndomainand’booked’
　　land，andsecondarilyoverthetribe-lands。TheearlygrowthofthepoweroftheChiefisthusoftheutmostinterestinthehistoryoflandedproperty，andIproposetodiscussitatsomelengthinthesUCceedingLectures。Meantime，letmesaysomethingonthetransmutationswhichPatriarchalPowerisobserved，asafact，toundergointheassembliesofmenheldtogetherbykinshipwhicharestillfoundmakingapartofAryancommunities。
　　TheJointUndividedFamily，whereveritsbeginningisseeninsuchcommunities，springsuniversallyoutofthePatriarchalFamily，agroupofnaturaloradoptivedescendantsheldtogetherbysubjectiontotheeldestlivingascendant，father，grandfather，orgreat-grandfather。Whateverbetheformalprescriptionsofthelaw，theheadofsuchagroupisalwaysinpracticedespotic，andheistheobjectofarespect，ifnotalwaysofanaffection，whichisprobablyseateddeeperthananypositiveinstitution。ButinthemoreextensiveassemblagesofkinsmenwhichconstitutetheJointFamilytheeldestmaleoftheeldestlineisnevertheparentofallthemembers，andnotnecessarilythefirstinageamongthem。Tomanyofthemheismerelyadistantrelative，andhemaypossiblybeaninfant。Thesenseofpatriarchalrightdoesnotdieoutinsuchgroups。Eachfatherorgrandfatherhasmorepowerthananybodyelseoverhiswife，children，anddescendants；andthereisalwayswhatmaybecalledabeliefthatthebloodofthecollectivebrotherhoodrunsmoretrulyandpurelyinsomeonelinethaninanyother。AmongtheHindoos，theeldestmaleofthisline，ifoffullmentalcapacity，isgenerallyplacedattheheadoftheconcernsofthejointfamily；butwheretheinstitutionsurvivesinanycompleteness，heisnotaPaterfamilias，norisheownerofthefamilyproperty，butmerelymanagerofitsaffairsandadministratorofitspossessions。Ifheisnotdeemedfitforhisduties，a’worthier’kinsmanissubstitutedforhimbyelection，and，infact，thelongerthejointfamilyholdstogether，themoreelectiongainsgroundattheexpenseofbirth。TheheadormanageroftheSclavonicHouse-Communitieswhich，however，aremuchmoreartificialthantheHindooJointFamiliesisundisguisedlyanelectiverepresentative，andinsomeofourexamplesacouncilofkinsmenbelongingtotheeldestlineofdescenttakestheplaceofanindividualadministrator。ThewholeprocessIwilldescribeasthegradualtransmutationofthePatriarchintotheChief。ThegeneralruleisthattheChiefiselected，withastrongpreferencefortheeldestline。Sometimesheisassistedbyadefinitecouncilofnearkinsmen，andsometimesthiscounciltakeshisplace。Onthewhole，wherethebodyofkinsmenformedonthetypeoftheJointFamilyisapurelycivilinstitution，thetendencyistowardsgreaterdisregardoftheclaimsofblood。Butinthosestatesofsocietyinwhichthebrotherhoodisnotmerelyacivilconfraternity，butapolitical，militant，self-sustaininggroup，wecanperceivefromactuallyextantexamplesthataseparatesetofcausescomeintooperation，andthattheChief，asmilitaryleader，sometimesmorethanregainstheprivilegeswhichhelostthroughthedecayofthetraditionwhichconnectedhimwiththecommonrootofallthekindred。Truepatriarchalauthority，however，reviveswhenevertheprocessofexpansionintoagroupisinterruptedandwheneveroneofthebrotherhoodplantshimselfatadistancefromtherest。AHindoowhosevershimselffromaJointFamily，whichthelawasadministeredbytheEnglishtribunalsgiveshimgreatfacilitiesfordoing，acquiresmuchgreaterpoweroverhisfamily，inoursenseoftheword，thanhehadasamemberofthelargerbrotherhood。Similarly，inthedevelopedJointFamilyorVillage-Community，asthelittlesocietybecomesmorepopulous，asthevillagespreads，asthepracticeoflivinginseparatedwellingsextends，asthelandratherthanthecommonlineagegetstoberegardedasthecementofthebrotherhood，eachmaninhisownhousepracticallyobtainsstringentpatriarchalauthorityoverhiswife，children，andservants。Butthen，ontheotherhand，theseparatedmemberofthejointfamily，ortheheadofthevillagehousehold，willhimselfbecometherootofanewjointbrotherhood，unlesshischildrenvoluntarilydissolvethefamilyunionafterhisdeath。Thusallthebranchesofhumansocietymayormaynothavebeendevelopedfromjointfamilieswhicharoseoutofanoriginalpatriarchalcell；but，wherevertheJointFamilyisaninstitutionofanAryanrace，weseeitspringingfromsuchacell，and，whenitdissolves，weseeitdissolvingintoanumberofsuchcells。
　　TheChiefandHisOrderNothingseemstometohavebeenmoreclearlyshownbyrecentresearchesthanthenecessityofkeepingaparttheTribeandtheTribalChiefasdistinctsourcesofpositiveinstitutions。Thelinesofdescentareconstantlyentwined，buteachofthemisfoundtorunupintheendtoanindependentorigin。IfIweretoapplythisassertiontopoliticalhistory，IshouldbeonlyrepeatingmuchofwhathasbeensaidbyMrFreemaninhisexcellentworkon’ComparativePolitics。’Confiningmyselftothehistoryofprivateinstitutions，letmeobservethatthedistinctionwhichIhavedrawnshouldbecarefullyborneinmindbythosewhodesiretopenetratetothebeginningsofPropertyinLand。Thesubjecthasbeengreatlyobscuredbythepractice，nowbroughthometotheearlywritersonfeudallaw，ofsystematicallypassingoverormisconstruingallformsofproprietaryenjoymentwhichtheycouldnotexplainontheirownprinciples；andhithertothetruthhasonlybeendirectlyseenthroughsomeoftherulesoftenure。Itmaynow，however，belaiddownwithoutrashnessthatPropertyinLand，asknowntocommunitiesoftheAryanrace，hashadatwofoldorigin。IthasarisenpartlyfromthedisentanglementoftheindividualrightsofthekindredortribesmenfromthecollectiverightsoftheFamilyorTribe，andpartlyfromthegrowthandtransmutationofthesovereigntyoftheTribalChief。Thephenomenaattributabletothedoubleprocessseemtomeeasilydistinguishablefromoneanother。BoththesovereigntyoftheChiefandtheownershipoflandbytheFamilyorTribewereinmostofWesternEuropepassedthroughthecrucibleoffeudalism；butthefirstreappearedinsomewell-markedcharacteristicsofmilitaryorknightlytenures，andthelastintheprincipalrulesofnon-nobleholdings，andamongthemofSocage，thedistinctivetenureofthefreefarmer。