Theimpressionmadeisnotincorrect，butanimmensityofdetailislosttotheobserver，andasurfacevariedbycountlesssmallelevationslooksperfectlyflat。Caesar’sfailuretonotethenaturaldivisionsoftheCeltictribesmen，thefamiliesandseptsorsub-tribes，istomeparticularlyinstructive。ThetheoryofhumanequalityisofRomanorigin；thecomminutionofhumansociety，andtheuncheckedcompetitionamongitsmembers，whichhavegonesofarintheWesternEuropeofourdays，hadthemostefficientcausesinthemechanismoftheRomanState。HenceCaesar’somissionsseemtobethosemostnaturalinaRomangeneralwhowasalsoagreatadministratorandtrainedlawyer；
　　andtheyareundoubtedlythosetowhichanEnglishrulerofIndiaismostliableatthismoment。ItisoftensaidthatittakestwoorthreeyearsbeforeaGovernor-GenerallearnsthatthevastIndianpopulationisanaggregateofnaturalgroups，andnotthemixedmultitudeheleftathome；andsomerulersofIndiahavebeenaccusedofneverhavingmasteredthelessonatall。
　　ThereareafewveryimportantpointsofdetailtobenoticedinCaesar’sdescriptionofwhatmaybecalledthelayportionofCelticsociety。IshallafterwardscallyourattentiontothesignificanceofwhathestatesconcerningtheclasseswhomhecallstheclientsanddebtorsoftheEquites，andrespectingtheincreasedpowerwhichtheygivetotheChiefonwhomtheyaredependent。Itis，however，remarkablethat，whenhespeaksoftheDruids，hisstatementsaregreatlymoredetailed。Heretherewerenohomeassociationstomisleadhim，but，beyondthat，itisplainthathisinterestwasstronglyrousedbythenovelconstitutionofthisprivilegedorderwhomheplacesbythesideoftheChiefs。Letmerecall，then，toyoutheprincipalpointsofhisdescription，fromwhichIdesignedlyomitallstatementsconcerningthepriestlyofficeoftheclassdescribed。HetellsusthattheDruidsweresupremejudgesinallpublicandprivatedisputes；andthat，forinstance，allquestionsofhomicide，ofinheritance，andofboundarywerereferredtothemfordecision。
　　HesaysthattheDruidspresidedoverschoolsoflearning，towhichtheCelticyouthflockedeagerlyforinstruction，remaininginthemsometimessohewasinformedfortwentyyearsatatime。Hestatesthatthepupilsintheseschoolslearnedanenormousquantityofverses，whichwerenevercommittedtowriting；andhegiveshisopinionthattheobjectwasnotmerelytopreventsacredknowledgefrombeingpopularised，buttostrengthenthememory。BesidesdescribingtousthereligiousdoctrineoftheDruids，heinformsusthattheywereextremelyfondofdisputingaboutthenatureofthematerialworld，themovementsofthestars，andthedimensionsoftheearthandoftheuniverse。AttheirheadtherewasbyhisaccountachiefDruid，whoseplaceathisdeathwasfilledbyelection，andthesuccessionoccasionallygaverisetoviolentcontestsofarmsB。G。vi，13，14。
　　TherearesomestrongandevenstartlingpointsofcorrespondencebetweenthefunctionsoftheDruids，asdescribedbyCaesar，andtheofficeoftheBrehon，assuggestedbythelaw-tracts。TheextensiveliteratureoflawjustdisinterredtestifiestotheauthorityoftheBrehonsinalllegalmatters，andraisesastrongpresumptionthattheywereuniversalrefereesindisputes。Amongtheirwritingsareseparatetreatisesoninheritanceandboundary，andalmosteverypageofthetranslationscontainsareferencetothe’eric’-fineforhomicide。TheschoolsofliteratureandlawappeartohavebeennumerousinancientIreland，andO’Curryisabletogivethecourseofinstructioninoneofthemextendingovertwelveyears。
　　Allliterature，includingevenlaw，seemstohavebeenidentifiedwithpoetry。thechiefDruidofCaesarmeetsusontheverythresholdoftheSenchusMor，inthepersonofDubhthachMacuaLugair，theroyalpoetofErin，theBrehonwhowaschosenbyStPatricktoarbitrateinaquestionofhomicide，andwhose’mouth’
　　thesaint’blessed’。ThemodeofchoosingthechiefDruid，byelection，hasitscounterpartintheinstitutionofTanistry，whichwithinhistoricaltimesdeterminedthesuccessiontoallhighofficeinIreland，andwhichwashatefultotheEnglish，asaffordingsmallersecurityfororderthantheirownlessarchaicformofprimogeniture。Noristhatall。ThePrefacesinIrishtothetractscontainanumberofdiscussionsonsubjectswhichareinnowaylegal，orwhichareforcedintosomeconnectionwithlawbythemostviolentexpedients。Theyleaveonthemindtheimpressionofbeingapatchworkofmaterials，probablyofveryvariousantiquity，whichhappentohavebeenfondinthearchivesofparticularlaw-schools。Now，thePrefacetotheSenchusMoractuallycontainsdisquisitionsonallthemattersaboutwhichCaesardeclarestheDruidstohavebeenspeciallyfondofarguing。ItinoneplacesetsforthhowGodmadetheheavenandtheearth，buttheaccountisnottheleastliketheMosaicaccount。Itgoesoff，asCaesar’sDruidsdid，intoanumberofextraordinarystatements，’desideribusatqueeorummotu’，’demundiacterrarummagnitudine’。Amongotherthings，itdeclaresthatGodfixedsevendivisionsfromthefirmamenttotheearth，andthatthedistancehemeasuredfromthemoontothesunwas244miles。’Andthefirstformofthefirmamentwasordainedthus：astheshellisabouttheegg，soisthefirmamentroundtheearthinfixedsuspension……therearesixwindowsineachpartthroughthefirmamenttoshedlightthrough，sothattherearesixty-sixwindowsinit，andaglassshutterforeachwindow；
　　sothatthewholefirmamentisamightsheetofcrystalandaprotectingbulwarkroundtheearth，withthreeheavens，andthreeheavensaboutit；andtheseventhwasarrangeinthreeheavens。
　　thislast，however，isnotthehabitationofangels，butislikeawheelrevolvinground，ndthefirmamentisthusrevolting，andalsothesevenplanets，sincethetimewhentheywerecreated’。
　　PartsofthepassagereflecttheastronomicalnotionsknowntohavebeencurrentintheMiddleAges，butmuchofitreadslikeafragmentofaheathencosmology，towhichalaterrevisionhasgivenafaintChristiancolouring。ThesamePrefacecontainsalsosomecuriousspeculationsontheetymologyoflaw-terms，andthePrefacetotheBookofAicillenters，amongotherthings，intothequestionofthedifferencebetweengenusandspecies。
　　Isuggest，therefore，thatthesametendencieswhichproducedamongtheCeltsoftheContinenttheclasscalledtheDruidsproducedamongtheCeltsofIrelandtheclassknowntousastheBrehons；nordoesitseemtomedifficulttoconnecttheresultsofthesetendencieswithotherknownphenomenaofancientsociety。ThereismuchreasontobelievethattheTribe-Chief，orKing，whomtheearliestAryanrecordsshowusstandingbythesideofthePopularAssembly，waspriestandjudgeaswellascaptainofthehost。ThelaterAryanhistoryshowsusthisblendedauthoritydistributingor’differentiating’itself，andpassingeithertotheAssemblyortoanewclassofdepositaries。
　　AmongtheAchaeansofHomer，theChiefhasceasedtobepriest，butheisstilljudge；andhisjudicialsentences，Themiotes，or’dooms’，howevermuchtheymaybedrawninrealityfrompre-exitingusage，arebelievedtobedictatedtohimfromonhigh。AmongtheCeltsbothofGaulandofIrelandhehasceasedtobepriest，andalsoprobablytobejudge，althoughsomemeasureofjudicialauthoritymaystillbelongtohisofficeasa’survival’。TheorderofchangethusdepartsfromthatfollowedinAthenianhistory，wheretheinstitutionofkingshipsurvivedonlyinthenameoftheKingArchon，whowasajudicialfunctionary，andfromthatfollowedinRomanhistory，wheretheRexSacrificuluswasahierophantorpriest。ThePopularAssembly，meanwhile，whichvirtuallyattractedtoitselfthewholecivilandcriminaljurisdictionoftheKingsamongtheAthenians，andwhichatRomeengrossedthewholeadministrationofcriminaljusticethroughthecommissionsitappointed，seemstolosealljudicialauthorityamongtheCelts。PerhapsImaybepermittedthustodescribethechangeIconceivetohavetakenplaceamongtheCeltsofIreland。Themis，whoinHomeristheassessorofZeusandthesourceofjudicialinspirationtokings，hassotospeaksetupforherself。Kingshavedelegatedtheirauthoritytoamerelyhumanassessor，andweseebythestorywhichbeginstheSenchusMorthat，evenwhenaSaintissupposedtobepresent，theinspirationofwhichheisthesourcedoesnotfindexpressionthroughhislips，nordoesitdescendontheKing；itdescendsontheprofessionaljudge。WhenweobtainourlastglimpseoftheclasswhichhasreceivedthisinheritancefromChieforKing——theBrehons，Judges，orAuthorsofJudgments——theyhavesunktothelowestdepthofmiseryanddegradationthroughtheEnglishconquest。Atanearlierdatetheyareseendividedintofamiliesorsepts，thehereditarylaw-advisersofsomeprincelyorpowerfulhouse。HughMcEgan，whowrotethenote’inhisownfather’sbook’whichIreadinthelastLecture，wasoneofthehereditaryBrehonsattachedtotheMcCarthys。But，intheearliestIrishtraditions，thefunctionsoftheBrehonandtheKingrunverymuchintooneanother。ThemostancientBrehonsaredescribedasofroyalblood，sometimesasking’ssons。TheTanaistsofthegreatIrishChiefs，thesuccessorselectedoutofthekindredofeachChieftocomeafterhimonhisdeath，aresaidtohaveoccasionallyofficiatedasjudges；andoneofthelaw-tracts，stillunpublished，containstheexpressrulethatitislawfulforaking，thoughhimselfajudge，tohaveajudgeinhisplace。CormacMacAirt，oneofthetraditionalauthorsoftheBookofAicill，wasaKinginretirement。Apocryphalashisstorymaybe，itisoneofmuchsignificancetothestudentofancientinstitutions。Hehadbeenaccidentlyblindedofoneeye，andissaidtohavebeendeposedfromhisregalofficeorchieftiancyonaccountoftheblemish。
　　Coirpri，hissonandsuccessorsaystheBookofAicill，’ineverydifficultcaseofjudgmentthatcametohimusedtogoandaskhisfatheraboutit，andhisfatherusedtosaytohim，“Myson，thatthoumayestknow“’——andthenproceededtolaydownthelaw。
　　If，withoutcommittingourselvestoanyspecifictheoryconcerningtheexactextentofthecorrespondence，wecanassumethattherewassubstantialidentitybetweentheliteraryclasswhichproducedthelaw-tractsandtheliteraryorderattributedtotheCelticracesbyCaesar，wenotonlydosomethingtoestablishanhistoricalconclusionperhapsmorecuriousthanimportant，butweremovesomeseriousdifficultiesintheinterpretationoftheinterestingandinstructivebodyofarchaiclawnowbeforeus。ThedifferencebetweentheDruidsandtheirsuccessors，theBrehons，wouldinthatcasebemainlythis：theBrehonswouldbenolongerpriests。Allsacerdotalorreligiousauthoritymusthavepassed，ontheconversionoftheIrishCelts，tothe’tribesofthesaints’——tothemissionarymonasticsocietiesfoundedatallpointsoftheisland——andtothatmultitudeofbishopsdependentonthem，whomitissodifficulttoreconcilewithanyofourpreconceivedideasastoancientecclesiasticalorganisation。Theconsequencewouldbethatthereligioussanctionsoftheancientlaws，thesupernaturalpenaltiesthreatenedontheirviolation，woulddisappear，exceptsofarasthelegalrulesexactlycoincidedwiththerulesofthenewChristiancode，the’lawoftheletter。’Now，thewantofasanctionisoccasionallyoneofthegreatdifficultiesinunderstandingtheBrehonlaw。Supposeamandisobeyedtheruleorresisteditsapplication，whatwouldhappen？ThelearnedwriterofoneofthemodernprefacesprefixedtotheThirdVolumeoftheAncientLawscontentsthattheadministrationoftheBrehonsystemconsistedinreferencestoarbitration；andIcertainlythinkmyselfthat，sofarasthesystemisknown，itpointstothatconclusion。TheoneobjectoftheBrehonswastoforcedisputantstorefertheirquarrelstoaBrehon，ortosomepersoninauthorityadvisedbyaBrehon，andthusavastdealofthelawtendstorunintotheLawofDistress，whichdeclaresthevariousmethodsbywhichamancanbecompelledthroughseizureofhispropertytoconsenttoanarbitration。ButthenonecannothelpperpetuallyfeelingthatthecompulsionisweakascomparedwiththestringencyoftheprocessofmodernCourtsofJustice；andbesidesthat，whyshouldnotthemanattemptedtobedistraineduponconstantlyresistwithsuccess？Doubtlessthelawprovidespenaltiesforresistance；butwhereistheultimatesanction？
　　Caesarsuppliesananswer，whichmust，Ithink，containaportionofthetruth。HesaysthatifaCeltofGaulrefusedtoabidebyaDruidjudgmenthewasexcommunicated：whichwasesteemedtheheaviestofpenalties。AnotherexamplewhichIcangiveyouofthewantorweaknessofthesanctionintheBrehonlawisaveryremarkableone，andIshallrecurtoithereafter。Ifyouhavealegalclaimagainstamanofacertainrankandyouaredesirousofcompellinghimtodischargeit，theSenchusMortellsyouto’fastuponhim。’’Notice’，itsays，’precedesdistressinthecaseoftheinferiorgrades，exceptitbebypersonsofdistinctionoruponpersonsofdistinction；fastingprecedesdistressintheircase’’AncientLawsofIreland，’vol。i，p……TheinstitutionisunquestionablyidenticalwithonewidelydiffusedthroughouttheEast，whichiscalledbytheHindoos’sittingdharna’。Itconsistsinsittingatyourdebtor’sdoorandstarvingyourselftillhepays。FromtheEnglishpointofviewthepracticehasalwaysbeenconsideredbarbarousandimmoral，andtheIndianPenalCodeexpresslyforbidsit。Itsuggests，however，thequestion——whatwouldfollowifthecreditorsimplyallowedthedebtortostarve？UndoubtedlytheHindoosupposesthatsomesupernaturalpenaltywouldfollow；
　　indeed，hegenerallygivesdefinitenesstoitbyretainingaBrahmintostarvehimselfvicariously，andnoHindoodoubtswhatwouldcomeofcausingaBrahmin’sdeath。WecannotbutsupposethattheBrehonruleoffastingwasoncethoughttohavebeenenforcedinsomesimilarway。CaesarstatesthattheDruidsbelievedintheimmortalityandtransmigrationofthesoul，andconsidereditthekeyoftheirsystem。ADruidmaythusverywellhavetaughtthatpenalconsequencesinanotherworldwouldfollowthecreditor’sdeathbystarvation；andthereisperhapsapalereflectionofthisdoctrineinthelanguageoftheSenchusMor：