absorbedinthelarger，thelargerhaveagainbeenswallowedup
　　instillwider，andtheseinyetwiderareas。Locallifeand
　　villagecustomhavenot，itistrue，decayedeverywhereinthe
　　samedegree。ThereismuchmoreoftheminRussiathanin
　　Germany；moreoftheminGermanythaninEngland；moreofthemin
　　EnglandthaninFrance。Butonthewhole，wheneverthemodern
　　Stateisformed，itisanassemblageoffragmentsconsiderably
　　smallerthanthosewhichmadeupempiresoftheearliertype，and
　　considerablylikertooneanother。
　　Itwouldberashtolaydownconfidentlywhichiscauseand
　　whichisconsequence，butunquestionablythiscompleter
　　triturationinmodernsocietiesofthegroupswhichoncelived
　　withanindependentlifehasproceededconcurrentlywithmuch
　　greateractivityinlegislation。Wherevertheprimitivecondition
　　ofanAryanracerevealsitselfeitherthroughhistoricalrecords
　　orthroughthesurvivalofitsancientinstitutions，theorgan
　　whichintheelementarygroupcorrespondstowhatwecallthe
　　legislature，iseverywherediscernible。ItistheVillage
　　Council，sometimesowningaresponsibilitytotheentirebodyof
　　villagers，sometimesdisclaimingit，sometimesovershadowedby
　　theauthorityofanhereditarychief，butneveraltogether
　　obscured。Fromthisembryohavesprungallthemostfamous
　　legislaturesoftheworld，theAthenianEkklesia，theRoman
　　Comitia，SenateandPrince，andourownParliament，thetypeand
　　parentofallthe’collegiatesovereignties’asAustinwould
　　callthemofthemodernworld，orinotherwordsofall
　　governmentsinwhichsovereignpowerisexercisedbythepeople
　　orsharedbetweenthepeopleandtheKing。Yet，ifweexaminethe
　　undevelopedformofthisorganofState，itslegislativefaculty
　　isitsleastdistinctandleastenergeticfaculty。Inpointof
　　fact，asIhaveobservedelsewhere，thevariousshadesofthe
　　powerlodgedwiththeVillageCouncil，undertheempireofthe
　　ideaspropertoit，arenotdistinguishedfromoneanother，nor
　　doesthemindseeacleardifferencebetweenmakingalaw，
　　declaringalaw，andpunishinganoffenderagainstalaw。Ifthe
　　powersofthisbodymustbedescribedbymodernnames，thatwhich
　　liesmostinthebackgroundislegislativepower，thatwhichis
　　mostdistinctlyconceivedisjudicialpower。Thelawsobeyedare
　　regardedashavingalwaysexisted，andusagesreallyneware
　　confoundedwiththereallyold。
　　Thevillage-communitiesoftheAryanracedonottherefore
　　exercisetruelegislativepowersolongastheyremainunder
　　primitiveinfluences。Noragainislegislativepowerexercisedin
　　anyintelligiblesenseofthewordsbytheSovereignsofthose
　　greatStates，nowconfinedtotheEast，whichpreservethe
　　primitivelocalgroupsmostnearlyintact。Legislation，aswe
　　conceiveit，andthebreakupoflocallifeappeartohave
　　universallygoneontogether。ComparetheHindoo
　　village-communityinIndiawiththeTeutonicvillage-communityin
　　England。Thefirstofthem，amongalltheinstitutionsofthe
　　countrywhicharenotmodernandofBritishconstruction，isfar
　　themostdefinite，farthemoststronglymarked，farthemost
　　highlyorganised。Ofthelatter，theancientEnglishcommunity，
　　thevestigesmaycertainlybetracked，butthecomparativemethod
　　hastobecalledin，andthewrittenlawandwrittenhistoryof
　　manycenturiessearched，beforetheirsignificancecanbe
　　understoodandthebrokenoutlinerestoredtocompleteness。Itis
　　impossiblenottoconnectthedifferingvitalityofthesame
　　institutionwithcertainotherphenomenaofthetwocountries。In
　　India，MogulandMahratta，followingalongseriesofearlier
　　conquerors，havesweptoverthevillage-communities，butafter
　　includingtheminanominalempiretheyhaveimposednopermanent
　　obligationbeyondthepaymentoftaxortribute。Ifonsomerare
　　occasionstheyhaveattemptedtheenforcedreligiousconversion
　　ofsubjugatedpopulations，thetemplesandtheriteshavebeenat
　　mostchanged。inthevillages，whilethecivilinstitutionshave
　　beenleftuntouched。HereinEnglandthestrugglebetweenthe
　　centralandthelocalpowerhasfollowedaverydifferentcourse。
　　WecanseeplainlythattheKing’slawandtheKing’scourtshave
　　beenperpetuallycontendingagainstthelocallawandthelocal
　　courts，andthevictoryoftheKing’slawhasdrawnafteritthe
　　longseriesofActsofParliamentfoundedonitsprinciples。The
　　wholeprocesscanonlybecalledlegislationeverincreasingin
　　energy，untiltheancientmultifariouslawofthecountryhas
　　beenallbutcompletelyabolished，andtheoldusagesofthe
　　independentcommunitieshavedegeneratedintothecustomsof
　　manorsorintomerehabitshavingnosanctionfromlaw。
　　ThereismuchreasontobelievethattheRomanEmpirewasthe
　　sourceoftheinfluenceswhichhaveled，immediatelyor
　　ultimately，totheformationofhighly-centralised，
　　actively-legislating，States。Itwasthefirstgreatdominion
　　whichdidnotmerelytax，butlegislatedalso。Theprocesswas
　　spreadovermanycenturies。IfIhadtofixtheepochsofits
　　commencementandcompletion，Ishouldplacethemroughlyatthe
　　issueofthefirstEdictumProvinciale，andattheextensionof
　　theRomancitizenshiptoallsubjectsoftheempire，butnodoubt
　　thefoundationsofthechangewerelaidconsiderablybeforethe
　　firstperiod，anditwascontinuedinsomewayslongafterthe
　　last。But，intheresult，avastandmiscellaneousmassof
　　customarylawwasbrokenupandreplacedbynewinstitutions。
　　Seeninthislight，theRomanEmpireisaccuratelydescribedin
　　theProphecyofDaniel。Itdevoured，brakeinpieces，andstamped
　　theresiduewithitsfeet。
　　TheirruptionofthebarbarianracesintotheEmpirediffused
　　throughthecommunitiesincludedinitamultitudeofthe
　　primitivetribalandvillageideaswhichtheyhadlost。
　　Neverthelessnosocietydirectlyorindirectlyinfluencedbythe
　　Empirehasbeenaltogetherlikethesocietiesformedonthatmore
　　ancientsystemwhichtheimmobilityoftheEasthascontinued
　　tillwecanactuallyobserveit。Inallcommonwealthsofthe
　　firstkind，Sovereigntyismoreorlessdistinctlyassociated
　　withlegislativepower，andthedirectioninwhichthispowerwas
　　tobeexercisedwasinaconsiderablenumberofcountriesclearly
　　chalkedoutbythejurisprudencewhichtheEmpireleftbehindit。
　　TheRomanlaw，fromwhichthemostancientlegalnotionshadbeen
　　almostwhollyexpelled，waspalpablythegreatsolventoflocal
　　usageeverywhere。Therearethustwotypesoforganisedpolitical
　　society。Inthemoreancientofthese，thegreatbulkofmen
　　derivetheirrulesoflifefromthecustomsoftheirvillageor
　　city，buttheyoccasionally，thoughmostimplicitly，obeythe
　　commandsofanabsoluterulerwhotakestaxesfromthembutnever
　　legislates，Intheother，andtheonewithwhichwearemost
　　familiar，theSovereignisevermoreactivelylegislatingon
　　principlesofhisown，whilelocalcustomandideaareever
　　hasteningtodecay。Itseemstomethatinthepassagefromone
　　ofthesepoliticalsystemstoanother，lawshavedistinctly
　　alteredtheircharacter。TheForce，forexample，whichisatthe
　　backoflaw，canonlybecalledthesamebyamerestrainingof
　　language。Customarylaw——asubjectonwhichallofAustin’s
　　remarksseemtomecomparativelyunfruitful——isnotobeyed，as
　　enactedlawisobeyed。Whenitobtainsoversmallareasandin
　　smallnaturalgroups，thepenalsanctionsonwhichitdependsare
　　partlyopinion，partlysuperstition，buttoafargreaterextent
　　aninstinctalmostasblindandunconsciousasthatwhich
　　producessomeofthemovementsofourbodies。Theactual
　　constraintwhichisrequiredtosecureconformitywithusageis
　　inconceivablysmall。When，however，theruleswhichhavetobe
　　obeyedonceemanatefromanauthorityexternaltothesmall
　　naturalgroupandformingnopartofit，theywearacharacter
　　whollyunlikethatofacustomaryrule。Theylosetheassistance
　　ofsuperstition，probablythatofopinion，certainlythatof
　　spontaneousimpulse。Theforceatthebackoflawcomestherefore
　　tobepurelycoerciveforcetoadegreequiteunknownin
　　societiesofthemoreprimitivetype。Moreover，inmany
　　communities，thisforcehastoactataverygreatdistancefrom
　　thebulkofthepersonsexposedtoit，andthustheSovereignwho
　　wieldsithastodealwithgreatclassesofactsandwithgreat
　　classesofpersons，ratherthanwithisolatedactsandwith
　　individuals。Amongtheconsequencesofthisnecessityaremanyof
　　thecharacteristicssometimessupposedtobeinseparablefrom
　　laws，theirindifferency，theirinexorableness，andtheir
　　generality。
　　AndastheconceptionofForceassociatedwithlawshas
　　altered，soalso，Ithink，hastheconceptionofOrder。Inthe
　　elementarysocialgroupsformedbymenoftheAryanrace，nothing
　　canbemoremonotonousthantheroutineofvillagecustom。
　　Nevertheless，intheinteriorofthehouseholdswhichtogether
　　makeupthevillage-community，thedespotismofusageisreplaced
　　bythedespotismofpaternalauthority。Outsideeachthresholdis
　　immemorialcustomblindlyobeyed；insideisthePatriaPotestas
　　exercisedbyahalf-civilisedmanoverwife，child，andslave。So
　　farthenaslawsarecommands，theywouldbeassociatedinthis
　　stageofsocietylesswithinvariableorderthanwithinscrutable
　　caprice；anditiseasiertosupposethemenofthosetimes
　　lookingtothesuccessionofnaturalphenomena，dayandnight，
　　summerandwinter，fortypesofregularity，thantothewordsand
　　actionsofthoseabovethemwhopossessedcoercivepowerover
　　them。
　　TheForcethenwhichisatthebackoflawswasnotalways
　　thesame。TheOrderwhichgoeswiththemwasnotalwaysthesame。
　　Theyhaveonlygraduallyattractedtothemselvestheattributes
　　whichseemessentialtothemnotonlyinthepopularviewbutto
　　thepenetratingeyeoftheAnalyticalJurist，Theirgenerality
　　andtheirdependenceonthecoerciveforceofaSovereignarethe
　　resultofthegreatterritorialareaofmodernStates，ofthe
　　comminutionofthesub-groupswhichcomposethem，andaboveall
　　oftheexampleandinfluenceoftheRomanCommonwealthunder
　　Assembly，Senate，andPrince，whichfromveryearlytimeswas
　　distinguishedfromallotherdominationsandpowersinthatit
　　brakeupmorethoroughlythatwhichitdevoured。
　　Ithassometimesbeensaidofgreatsystemsofthoughtthat
　　nothingbutanaccidentpreventedtheircomingintoexistence
　　centuriesbeforetheiractualbirth。Nosuchassertioncanbe
　　madeofthesystemoftheAnalyticalJurists，whichcouldnot
　　havebeenconceivedinthebrainofitsauthorstillthetimewas
　　fullyripeforit。Hobbes’sgreatdoctrineisplainlytheresult
　　ofageneralisationwhichhehadopportunitiesunrivalledinthat
　　dayforeffecting，sinceduringthevirilityofhisintellecthe
　　wasasmuchontheContinentasinEngland，firstasatravelling
　　tutorandafterwardsasanexileflyingfromcivildisturbances。
　　IndependentlyofEnglishaffairs，whichhecertainlyviewedasa
　　strongpartisan，thephenomenawhichhehadtoobservewere
　　governmentsrapidlycentralisingthemselves，localprivilegesand
　　jurisdictionsinextremedecay，theoldhistoricalbodies，such
　　astheFrenchParliaments，tendingforthetimetobecome
　　furnacesofanarchy，theonlyhopeoforderdiscoverablein
　　kinglypower。Thesewereamongthepalpablefruitsofthewars
　　whichendedinthePeaceofWestphalia。Theoldmultiformlocal
　　activityoffeudalorquasi-feudalsocietywaseverywhere
　　enfeebledordestroyed；ifithadcontinued，thesystemofthis
　　greatthinkerwouldalmostcertainlyhaveneverseenthelight；