Suchagovernmentisevidentlyrestrainedtoverynarrowlimitsofspaceandpopulation。IdoubtifitwouldbepracticablebeyondtheextentofaNewEnglandtownship。Thefirstshadefromthispureelement，which，likethatofpurevitalair，cannotsustainlifeofitself，wouldbewherethepowersofthegovernment，beingdivided，shouldbeexercisedeachbyrepresentativeschoseneither_prohacvice_，orforsuchshorttermsasshouldrendersecurethedutyofexpressingthewilloftheirconstituents。ThisIshouldconsiderasthenearestapproachtoapurerepublic，whichispracticableonalargescaleofcountryorpopulation。AndwehaveexamplesofitinsomeofourStatesconstitutions，which，ifnotpoisonedbypriest-craft，wouldproveitsexcellenceoverallmixtureswithotherelements；and，withonlyequaldosesofpoison，wouldstillbethebest。Othershadesofrepublicanismmaybefoundinotherformsofgovernment，wheretheexecutive，judiciaryandlegislativefunctions，andthedifferentbranchesofthelatter，arechosenbythepeoplemoreorlessdirectly，forlongertermsofyearsorforlife，ormadehereditary；orwheretherearemixturesofauthorities，somedependenton，andothersindependentofthepeople。Thefurtherthedeparturefromdirectandconstantcontrolbythecitizens，thelesshasthegovernmentoftheingredientofrepublicanism；evidentlynonewheretheauthoritiesarehereditary，asinFrance，Venice，&c。，orself-chosen，asinHolland；andlittle，whereforlife，inproportionasthelifecontinuesinbeingaftertheactofelection。
ThepurestrepublicanfeatureinthegovernmentofourownState，istheHouseofRepresentatives。TheSenateisequallysothefirstyear，lessthesecond，andsoon。TheExecutivestillless，becausenotchosenbythepeopledirectly。TheJudiciaryseriouslyanti-republican，becauseforlife；andthenationalarmwielded，asyouobserve，bymilitaryleadersirresponsiblebuttothemselves。
Addtothistheviciousconstitutionofourcountycourtstowhomthejustice，theexecutiveadministration，thetaxation，police，themilitaryappointmentsofthecounty，andnearlyallourdailyconcernsareconfided，self-appointed，self-continued，holdingtheirauthoritiesforlife，andwithanimpossibilityofbreakinginontheperpetualsuccessionofanyfactiononcepossessedofthebench。
Theyareintruth，theexecutive，thejudiciary，andthemilitaryoftheirrespectivecounties，andthesumofthecountiesmakestheState。Andadd，also，thatonehalfofourbrethrenwhofightandpaytaxes，areexcluded，likeHelots，fromtherightsofrepresentation，asifsocietywereinstitutedforthesoil，andnotforthemeninhabitingit；oronehalfofthesecoulddisposeoftherightsandthewilloftheotherhalf，withouttheirconsent。”WhatconstitutesaState?
Nothigh-raisedbattlements，orlabor’dmound，Thickwall，ormoatedgate；
Notcitiesproud，withspiresandturretscrown’d；
No：men，highmindedmen；
Men，whotheirdutiesknow；
Butknowtheirrights；andknowing，daremaintain。
TheseconstituteaState。”
IntheGeneralGovernment，theHouseofRepresentativesismainlyrepublican；theSenatescarcelysoatall，asnotelectedbythepeopledirectly，andsolongsecuredevenagainstthosewhodoelectthem；theExecutivemorerepublicanthantheSenate，fromitsshorterterm，itselectionbythepeople，in_practice_，fortheyvoteforAonlyonanassurancethathewillvoteforB，andbecause，_inpracticealso_，aprincipleofrotationseemstobeinacourseofestablishment；thejudiciaryindependentofthenation，theircoercionbyimpeachmentbeingfoundnugatory。
If，then，thecontrolofthepeopleovertheorgansoftheirgovernmentbethemeasureofitsrepublicanism，andIconfessIknownoothermeasure，itmustbeagreedthatourgovernmentshavemuchlessofrepublicanismthanoughttohavebeenexpected；inotherwords，thatthepeoplehavelessregularcontrolovertheiragents，thantheirrightsandtheirinterestsrequire。AndthisIascribe，nottoanywantofrepublicandispositionsinthosewhoformedtheseconstitutions，buttoasubmissionoftrueprincipletoEuropeanauthorities，tospeculatorsongovernment，whosefearsofthepeoplehavebeeninspiredbythepopulaceoftheirowngreatcities，andwereunjustlyentertainedagainsttheindependent，thehappy，andthereforeorderlycitizensoftheUnitedStates。MuchIapprehendthatthegoldenmomentispastforreformingtheseheresies。Thefunctionariesofpublicpowerrarelystrengthenintheirdispositionstoabridgeit，andanunorganizedcallfortimelyamendmentisnotlikelytoprevailagainstanorganizedoppositiontoit。Wearealwaystoldthatthingsaregoingonwell；whychangethem?_”Chistabene，nonsimuove，”_saidtheItalian，”lethimwhostandswell，standstill。”Thisistrue；andIverilybelievetheywouldgoonwellwithusunderanabsolutemonarch，whileourpresentcharacterremains，oforder，industryandloveofpeace，andrestrained，ashewouldbe，bytheproperspiritofthepeople。Butitiswhileitremainssuch，weshouldprovideagainsttheconsequencesofitsdeterioration。Andletusrestinthehopethatitwillyetbedone，andspareourselvesthepainofevilswhichmayneverhappen。
Onthisviewoftheimportoftheterm_republic_，insteadofsaying，ashasbeensaid，”thatitmaymeananythingornothing，”wemaysaywithtruthandmeaning，thatgovernmentsaremoreorlessrepublicanastheyhavemoreorlessoftheelementofpopularelectionandcontrolintheircomposition；andbelieving，asIdo，thatthemassofthecitizensisthesafestdepositoryoftheirownrights，andespecially，thattheevilsflowingfromtheduperiesofthepeople，arelessinjuriousthanthosefromtheegoismoftheiragents，Iamafriendtothatcompositionofgovernmentwhichhasinitthemostofthisingredient。AndIsincerelybelieve，withyou，thatbankingestablishmentsaremoredangerousthanstandingarmies；
andthattheprincipleofspendingmoneytobepaidbyposterity，underthenameoffunding，isbutswindlingfuturityonalargescale。
Isaluteyouwithconstantfriendshipandrespect。
REFORMOFTHEVIRGINIACONSTITUTION
_ToSamuelKercheval_
_Monticello，July12，1816_
SIR，——IdulyreceivedyourfavorofJunethe13th，withthecopyofthelettersonthecallingaconvention，onwhichyouarepleasedtoaskmyopinion。Ihavenotbeeninthehabitofmysteriousreserveonanysubject，norofbuttoningupmyopinionswithinmyowndoublet。Onthecontrary，whileinpublicserviceespecially，Ithoughtthepublicentitledtofrankness，andintimatelytoknowwhomtheyemployed。ButIamnowretired：I
resignmyself，asapassenger，withconfidencetothoseatpresentatthehelm，andaskbutforrest，peaceandgoodwill。Thequestionyoupropose，onequalrepresentation，hasbecomeapartyone，inwhichIwishtotakenopublicshare。Yet，ifitbeaskedforyourownsatisfactiononly，andnottobequotedbeforethepublic，Ihavenomotivetowithholdit，andthelessfromyou，asitcoincideswithyourown。Atthebirthofourrepublic，Icommittedthatopiniontotheworld，inthedraughtofaconstitutionannexedtothe”NotesonVirginia，”inwhichaprovisionwasinsertedforarepresentationpermanentlyequal。Theinfancyofthesubjectatthatmoment，andourinexperienceofself-government，occasionedgrossdeparturesinthatdraughtfromgenuinerepublicancanons。Intruth，theabusesofmonarchyhadsomuchfilledallthespaceofpoliticalcontemplation，thatweimaginedeverythingrepublicanwhichwasnotmonarchy。Wehadnotyetpenetratedtothemotherprinciple，that”governmentsarerepublicanonlyinproportionastheyembodythewilloftheirpeople，andexecuteit。”Hence，ourfirstconstitutionshadreallynoleadingprinciplesinthem。Butexperienceandreflectionhavebutmoreandmoreconfirmedmeintheparticularimportanceoftheequalrepresentationthenproposed。Onthatpoint，then，Iamentirelyinsentimentwithyourletters；andonlylamentthatacopy-rightofyourpamphletpreventstheirappearanceinthenewspapers，wherealonetheywouldbegenerallyread，andproducegeneraleffect。Thepresentvacancytoo，ofothermatter，wouldgivethemplaceineverypaper，andbringthequestionhometoeveryman’sconscience。
ButinequalityofrepresentationinbothHousesofourlegislature，isnottheonlyrepublicanheresyinthisfirstessayofourrevolutionarypatriotsatformingaconstitution。Forletitbeagreedthatagovernmentisrepublicaninproportionaseverymembercomposingithashisequalvoiceinthedirectionofitsconcernsnotindeedinperson，whichwouldbeimpracticablebeyondthelimitsofacity，orsmalltownship，butbyrepresentativeschosenbyhimself，andresponsibletohimatshortperiods，andletusbringtothetestofthiscanoneverybranchofourconstitution。
Inthelegislature，theHouseofRepresentativesischosenbylessthanhalfthepeople，andnotatallinproportiontothosewhodochoose。TheSenatearestillmoredisproportionate，andforlongtermsofirresponsibility。IntheExecutive，theGovernorisentirelyindependentofthechoiceofthepeople，andoftheircontrol；hisCouncilequallyso，andatbestbutafifthwheeltoawagon。IntheJudiciary，thejudgesofthehighestcourtsaredependentonnonebutthemselves。InEngland，wherejudgeswerenamedandremovableatthewillofanhereditaryexecutive，fromwhichbranchmostmisrulewasfeared，andhasflowed，itwasagreatpointgained，byfixingthemforlife，tomakethemindependentofthatexecutive。Butinagovernmentfoundedonthepublicwill，thisprincipleoperatesinanoppositedirection，andagainstthatwill。
There，too，theywerestillremovableonaconcurrenceoftheexecutiveandlegislativebranches。Butwehavemadethemindependentofthenationitself。Theyareirremovable，butbytheirownbody，foranydepravitiesofconduct，andevenbytheirownbodyfortheimbecilitiesofdotage。Thejusticesoftheinferiorcourtsareself-chosen，areforlife，andperpetuatetheirownbodyinsuccessionforever，sothatafactiononcepossessingthemselvesofthebenchofacounty，canneverbebrokenup，butholdtheircountyinchains，foreverindissoluble。Yetthesejusticesaretherealexecutiveaswellasjudiciary，inallourminorandmostordinaryconcerns。Theytaxusatwill；filltheofficeofsheriff，themostimportantofalltheexecutiveofficersofthecounty；namenearlyallourmilitaryleaders，whichleaders，oncenamed，areremovablebutbythemselves。Thejuries，ourjudgesofallfact，andoflawwhentheychooseit，arenotselectedbythepeople，noramenabletothem。Theyarechosenbyanofficernamedbythecourtandexecutive。Chosen，didIsay?Pickedupbythesherifffromtheloungingsofthecourtyard，aftereverythingrespectablehasretiredfromit。Wherethenisourrepublicanismtobefound?Notinourconstitutioncertainly，butmerelyinthespiritofourpeople。Thatwouldobligeevenadespottogovernusrepublicanly。Owingtothisspirit，andtonothingintheformofourconstitution，allthingshavegonewell。Butthisfact，sotriumphantlymisquotedbytheenemiesofreformation，isnotthefruitofourconstitution，buthasprevailedinspiteofit。Ourfunctionarieshavedonewell，becausegenerallyhonestmen。Ifanywerenotso，theyfearedtoshowit。
Butitwillbesaid，itiseasiertofindfaultsthantoamendthem。Idonotthinktheiramendmentsodifficultasispretended。
Onlylaydowntrueprinciples，andadheretotheminflexibly。Donotbefrightenedintotheirsurrenderbythealarmsofthetimid，orthecroakingsofwealthagainsttheascendencyofthepeople。Ifexperiencebecalledfor，appealtothatofourfifteenortwentygovernmentsforfortyyears，andshowmewherethepeoplehavedonehalfthemischiefinthesefortyyears，thatasingledespotwouldhavedoneinasingleyear；orshowhalftheriotsandrebellions，thecrimesandthepunishments，whichhavetakenplaceinanysinglenation，underkinglygovernment，duringthesameperiod。Thetruefoundationofrepublicangovernmentistheequalrightofeverycitizen，inhispersonandproperty，andintheirmanagement。Trybythis，asatally，everyprovisionofourconstitution，andseeifithangsdirectlyonthewillofthepeople。Reduceyourlegislaturetoaconvenientnumberforfull，butorderlydiscussion。Leteverymanwhofightsorpays，exercisehisjustandequalrightintheirelection。Submitthemtoapprobationorrejectionatshortintervals。Lettheexecutivebechoseninthesameway，andforthesameterm，bythosewhoseagentheistobe；andleavenoscreenofacouncilbehindwhichtoskulkfromresponsibility。Ithasbeenthoughtthatthepeoplearenotcompetentelectorsofjudges_learnedinthelaw_。ButIdonotknowthatthisistrue，and，ifdoubtful，weshouldfollowprinciple。Inthis，asinmanyotherelections，theywouldbeguidedbyreputation，whichwouldnoterroftener，perhaps，thanthepresentmodeofappointment。InoneStateoftheUnion，atleast，ithaslongbeentried，andwiththemostsatisfactorysuccess。ThejudgesofConnecticuthavebeenchosenbythepeopleeverysixmonths，fornearlytwocenturies，andIbelievetherehashardlyeverbeenaninstanceofchange；sopowerfulisthecurbofincessantresponsibility。Ifprejudice，however，derivedfromamonarchicalinstitution，isstilltoprevailagainstthevitalelectiveprincipleofourown，andiftheexistingexampleamongourselvesofperiodicalelectionofjudgesbythepeoplebestillmistrusted，letusatleastnotadopttheevil，andrejectthegood，oftheEnglishprecedent；letusretainamovabilityontheconcurrenceoftheexecutiveandlegislativebranches，andnominationbytheexecutivealone。Nominationtoofficeisanexecutivefunction。Togiveittothelegislature，aswedo，isaviolationoftheprincipleoftheseparationofpowers。Itswervesthemembersfromcorrectness，bytemptationstointrigueforofficethemselves，andtoacorruptbarterofvotes；anddestroysresponsibilitybydividingitamongamultitude。Byleavingnominationinitsproperplace，amongexecutivefunctions，theprincipleofthedistributionofpowerispreserved，andresponsibilityweighswithitsheaviestforceonasinglehead。
Theorganizationofourcountyadministrationsmaybethoughtmoredifficult。Butfollowprinciple，andtheknotuntiesitself。
Dividethecountiesintowardsofsuchsizeasthateverycitizencanattend，whencalledon，andactinperson。Ascribetothemthegovernmentoftheirwardsinallthingsrelatingtothemselvesexclusively。Ajustice，chosenbythemselves，ineach，aconstable，amilitarycompany，apatrol，aschool，thecareoftheirownpoor，theirownportionofthepublicroads，thechoiceofoneormorejurorstoserveinsomecourt，andthedelivery，withintheirownwards，oftheirownvotesforallelectiveofficersofhighersphere，willrelievethecountyadministrationofnearlyallitsbusiness，willhaveitbetterdone，andbymakingeverycitizenanactingmemberofthegovernment，andintheofficesnearestandmostinterestingtohim，willattachhimbyhisstrongestfeelingstotheindependenceofhiscountry，anditsrepublicanconstitution。Thejusticesthuschosenbyeveryward，wouldconstitutethecountycourt，woulddoitsjudiciarybusiness，directroadsandbridges，levycountyandpoorrates，andadministerallthemattersofcommoninteresttothewholecountry。Thesewards，calledtownshipsinNewEngland，arethevitalprincipleoftheirgovernments，andhaveprovedthemselvesthewisestinventioneverdevisedbythewitofmanfortheperfectexerciseofself-government，andforitspreservation。Weshouldthusmarshalourgovernmentinto，1，thegeneralfederalrepublic，forallconcernsforeignandfederal；2，thatoftheState，forwhatrelatestoourowncitizensexclusively；
3，thecountyrepublics，forthedutiesandconcernsofthecounty；
and4，thewardrepublics，forthesmall，andyetnumerousandinterestingconcernsoftheneighborhood；andingovernment，aswellasineveryotherbusinessoflife，itisbydivisionandsubdivisionofdutiesalone，thatallmatters，greatandsmall，canbemanagedtoperfection。Andthewholeiscementedbygivingtoeverycitizen，personally，apartintheadministrationofthepublicaffairs。
Thesumoftheseamendmentsis，1。GeneralSuffrage。2。Equalrepresentationinthelegislature。3。Anexecutivechosenbythepeople。4。Judgeselectiveoramovable。5。Justices，jurors，andsheriffselective。6。Warddivisions。And7。Periodicalamendmentsoftheconstitution。