The’mechaniccorpusculartheory’；theconsequentdecayofphilosophy，illustratedbysuchphrasesasanexcellent’idea’ofcooking；’theourang-outangtheologyoftheoriginofthehumanspeciessubstitutedforthefirsttenchaptersofthebookofGenesis；rightsofnatureforthedutiesandprivilegesofcitizens；idealessfacts，misnamedproofsfromhistory，forprinciplesandtheinsightderivedfromthem；alltheseandothercalamitousresultsofmodernphilosophyareconnectedwithaneglectofthewell-beingofthepeople，themistakingofalargerevenueforprosperity，andtheconsumptionofginbypauperstothe’valueofeighteenmillionsyearly。’HeappealspatheticallytotheleadersoftheUtilitarians。Theywillscornhimforpronouncingthata’naturalclerisy’is’anessentialelementofarightlyconstitutednation。’Alltheirtractsocietiesandmechanics’institutesand’lecturebazaarsundertheabsurdnameofuniversities’are’empiricspecifics’whichfeedthedisease，Sciencewillbeplebified，notpopularised，themoralitynecessaryforastate，canonlyexistforthepeopleintheformofreligion。Buttheexistenceofatruephilosophy，orthepowerandhabitofcontemplatingparticularsintheunityandfontalmirroroftheidea，——thisintherulersandteachersofanationisindispensabletoasoundstateofreligioninallclasses。Infact，religion，trueorfalse，isandeverhasbeenthecentreofgravityinarealmtowhichallotherthingsmustandwillaccommodatethemselves。’
　　TheexistenceoftheeighteenthcenturyalwaysremainedahopelesspuzzleforColeridgeandhisfollowers。
　　Whyatthatperiodeverythingwentwronginthehigherregionsofthoughtremainedamystery。’Godisabove，’saysSirThomasMoretoSouthey，99’butthedevilisbelow；evilprinciplesareintheirnaturemoreactivethangood。’Thedevilseemedtohavegotintotheupperair，andwasworkingwithhisallies，BenthamandMillandPaineandCobbett，withremarkablesuccess。But，whateverthetheoriesofconservativesinchurchandstate，thefactthatthetheorieswereheldisimportant。Thediametricaloppositionbetweentwoschools，oneofwhichregardedthechurchasasimpleabuse，anditsdoctrinesaseffetesuperstitions，whiletheotherlookedtothechurchanditscreedasgivingthesolehopeforsuppressingtheevilprinciple，wasacriticalpointinlatermovements，politicalaswellasreligious。
　　IV。SOCIALISM
　　IhavespokenofSouthey’ssympathyforRobertOwen。Owen1771-1858isoneofthecharacteristicfiguresofthetime，HewasthesonofavillagetradesmaninWales，andhadrisentoprosperitybythequalitiesofthevirtuousapprentice。Industry，patience，animperturbablygoodtemper，andsagacityinbusinessmattershadraisedhimtohighpositionasamanufactureratthetimeoftherapidadvanceofthecottontrade。Manypoormenhavefollowedthesamepathtowealth。Owen’speculiaritywasthatwhilehebecameacapitalisthepreservedhissympathywiththeworking。classes。Whileimprovingmachinery，hecomplainedthatthe’livingmachinery’wasneglected。OnegreatstepinhiscareerwashismarriagetothedaughterofDavidDaleofNewLanark，areligiousandworthymanufacturer。100Dalehademployedanumberofpauperchildrenwhowereinthatdaytobedisposedofbytheirparishes；andhaddonehisbesttomaketheirpositionmoretolerable。
　　Owentookupthisscheme，andcarrieditoutmoresystematically。NewLanark，inhishands，becameamodelvillage；heprovidedinvariouswaysfortheencouragementofsobriety，industry，andhonestyamonghisworkmen，setupstorestosupplycheapandgoodprovisions，andespeciallyprovidedinfantschoolsandasystematiceducation。Thechildren，’hedeclares，’werethehappiesthumanbeingsheeversaw。’Whenhispartnersinterferedwithhisplans，OwenboughtthemoutandstartedthecompanytowhichBenthamandAllenbelonged。NewLanarkrapidlybecamefamous。Itwasvisitedbyallthephilanthropistsoftheday。TheroyaldukesnotonlyofEnglandbutofRussiawereinterested；andOwenevenbelievedthathehadconvertedNapoleonatElba。Sofar，Owenwasabenevolentcapitalist，exercisingapaternalswayoverhispeople。Hebecameconvinced，however，thathehaddiscoveredthekeytothegreatsocialproblemsoftheday。Whenthedistressesfollowedthepeace，hewaspreparedtopropoundhisremedy，andfoundmanywillinghearersinallclasses。LiverpoolandSidmouthlistenedtohimwithfavour，andthedukeofKentbecamepresidentofacommitteestartedtocarryouthisviews。HegavetheimpetustothemovementbywhichtheFactoryActof1819wascarried，althoughitwasfarfromembodyinghisproposalsintheircompleteness。
　　Owen’sdiagnosisofthesocialdiseaseexplainsSouthey’spartiality。LikeSouthey，hetracedtheeviltothedevelopmentofthemanufacturingsystem。Thatsysteminvolved，asheheld，whatlaterSocialistshavecalledthe’exploitation’ofthelabouringclassesbythecapitalists。Withsingularlycrudenotionsofpoliticaleconomy，Owenassumedthatthe’deadmachinery’wasincompetitionwiththe’livingmachinery。’Hemadestartlingcalculationsastotheamountofhumanlabourrepresentedbysteam-engines；andtookforgrantedthatthesteam-enginedisplacedanequalnumberofworkmen。Hisremedyforpovertywastosetupanumberofcommunities，whichshouldmaintainthemselvesbycultivatingthesoilwiththespade，andinwhicheverymanshouldlabourforall。ThusNewLanarksweretobespreadoverthecountry，withthedifferencethattheemployerwastobeomitted。Owen，inshort，becameproperlyaSocialist，havingbeensimplyapaternalphilanthropist。ForatimeOwenmetwithconsiderablesupport。AgreatmeetingwasheldinLondonin1817，andacommitteewasstartedtwoyearsafterwards，ofwhichRicardowasamember。Ricardo，indeed，tookpainstoletitbeknownthathedidnotbelieveintheefficacyofOwen’splans。MeanwhileOwenwasbreakingoffhisconnectionwithNewLanark，andbecomingtheapostleofanewsocialcreed。HismissionaryvoyagestookhimtoIreland，totheUnitedStatesandMexico，andattemptsweremadetoestablishcommunitiesinScotlandandintheStateofIllinois。
　　OwenandhisfollowersbecamenaturalantagonistsoftheUtilitarians。HeagreedwithSoutheyintracingdistresstothedevelopmentofthegreatmanufacturingsystem，thoughhewentmuchfurther。Theprinciplesessentiallyinvolvedinthewholeindustrialsystemwere，accordingtohim，pernicious。Heheldtheessentialdoctrineofhismodernsuccessorsthatpropertyistheft。BetweensuchamanandthemenwhotooktheWealthofNationsfortheirgospel，andRicardoasitsauthorisedcommentator，therewasanimpassablegulf。Ontheotherhand，OwenwasequallyfarfromtheToryviewofreligiousprinciples。
　　Southey’sremarkthathecouldonlysucceedbyallyinghimselfwithsomereligiousfanaticismwasjusttothepoint。
　　Owenwasamanofveryfewideas，thoughheheldsuchashehadwithextraordinarytenacity，andenforcedthembytheeffectiveifillogicalmethodofincessantrepetition。Amongthemwastheideawhich，ashedeclares，hadoccurredtohimbeforehewastenyearsoldthattherewassomethingradicallywronginallreligions，Whetherthisopinionhadcometohimfromthediffusedrationalismofhistime，orwascongenialtothepracticalandprosaictemperamentwhichwasdisquietedbythewasteofenergyoverfutilesectariansquabbles，orwassuggestedbyhisearlystudyofSeneca——theonlyauthorofwhomhespeaksashavingimpressedhiminearlyyears——itbecameafixedconviction。
　　HehadbeenanearlysupporterofLancasterand’unsectarian’education。
　　Whenhisgreatmeetingwastobeheldin1817itoccurredtohimthathemightaswellannouncehisviews。Heaccordinglyinformedhishearersthatthereligionsoftheworldwerethegreatobstaclestoprogress。Heexpected，asheassuresus，thatthiscandidavowalwouldcausehimtobetorninpieces。’Itprovokedonthecontrarygeneralapplause，andOwencongratulatedhimselfratherhastilyonhavingstruckthedeathblowofsuperstition。
　　Owen’sposition，atanyrate，wasasignificantsymptom。ItshowedthattheSocialistmovementsprangfrommotivesoutsidethesphereofthechurches。Owen’spersonalsimplicityandcalmnessseemstohavesavedhimfromanybitteranimosity。HesimplysetasideChristianityasnottothepurpose，andwentoncalmlyassertingandre-assertinghisviewstoCatholicsandProtestants，Whigs，Radicals，andTories，theyagreedinconsideringhimtobeabore，butwereboredratherthanirritated，Owenhimself，likelaterSocialists，professedindifferencetothepoliticalwarfareofWhigsandTories，When，attheheightoftheReformmovement，hepublishedapipercalledtheCrisis，thetitlereferrednottothestruggleinwhichalltheupperclasseswereabsorbed，buttotheindustrialrevolutionwhichhehopedtobringabout，HewouldhavebeenequallyreadytoaccepthelpfromWhig，Tory，orRadical；buthispositionwasoneequallydistastefultoall，theTorycouldnotallyhimselfwiththemanwhothoughtallreligionsnonsense；noranyoftheregularpartieswiththemanwhocondemnedthewholeindustrialsystemandwasopposedtoallthecherishedprejudicesoftherespectablemiddleclasses。
　　Owen’sfavouritedogmaisworthamoment’snotice，Hewasnevertiredofrepeatingthat’characterisformedbycircumstances’；fromwhichheplacidlyinfersthatnomandeservespraiseorblameforhisconduct。Theinference，itmustbeadmitted，isanawkwardoneinanyethicalsystem。Itrepresents，probably，Owen’smostseriousobjectiontothereligionsoftheworld。Theultimateaimofthepriestistosavemen’ssouls；andsinmeansconductwhichleadstosupernaturalpunishment。Owen，onthecontrary，heldthatimmoralitywassimplyadiseasetobecured，andthatwrathwiththesinnerwasasmuchoutofplaceaswrathwithapatient。InthissenseOwen’sview，asIatleastshouldhold，definesthecorrectstarting-pointofanysocialreformer。Hehastoconsiderascientificproblem，nottobeanagentofasupernaturallegislator。Heshouldtrytoalterthegeneralconditionsfromwhichsocialevilsspring，nottodealinpardonsorpunishment。Owenwasactingwiththoroughlygoodsenseinhisearlyapplicationsofthisprinciple。Thecare，forexample，whichhebestoweduponinfanteducationrecognisedthefactthatsocialreformimpliedathoroughtrainingoftheindividualfromhisearliestyears。Owen’sgreatesterrorcorrespondstothetransformationwhichthisbeliefunderwentinhismind。Sincecircumstancesformcharacter，heseemstohaveargued，itisonlynecessarytochangethecircumstancesofagrown-upmantoalterhiswholedisposition。HisambitiousschemeinAmericaseemedtosupposethatitwasenoughtobringtogetheramiscellaneouscollectionofthepooranddiscontentedpeople，andtoinvitethemalltobehavewithperfectunselfishness。AtpresentIneedonlyremarkthatinthisrespecttherewasaclosecoincidencebetweenOwenandtheUtilitarians。Bothofthemreallyaimedatanimprovementofsocialconditionsonascientificmethod；andbothjustifiedtheirhopesbythecharacteristicbeliefintheindefinitemodifiabilityofhumannaturebyexternalcircumstances。
　　IturntoamanwhowasinsomewaysthemostcompleteantithesistoOwen，WilliamCobbett1762-1835，unlikeOwen，tookapassionateandconspicuouspartinthepoliticalstrugglesoftheday。Cobbett，declarestheEdinburghReviewinJuly1807，hasmoreinfluencethanalltheotherjournalistsputtogether。Hehadwonit，asthereviewerthought，byhisforceofcharacter，althoughhehadchangedhispoliticscompletely’withinthelastsixmonths。’Thefactwasmoresignificantthanwasthenapparent。Cobbett，sonofalabourerwhohadrisentobeasmallfarmer，hadinspiteofallobstacleslearnedtoreadandwriteandbecomeagreatmasterofthevernacular。HisearliestmodelhadbeenSwift’sTaleofaTub，andindownrightvigourofhomelylanguagehecouldscarcelybesurpassedevenbytheauthoroftheDrapier’sLetters。Hehadenlistedasasoldier，andhadafterwardsdriftedtoAmerica。
　　TherehehadbecomeconspicuousasatypicalJohnBull。Sturdyandpugnaciousinthehighestdegree，hehadtakentheEnglishsideinAmericanpoliticswhenthegreatquestionwaswhetherthenewpowershouldbebulliedbyFranceorbyEngland。Hehaddenouncedhisprecursor，Paine，inlanguagesavouringtoomuch，perhaps，ofbarrack-rooms，butcertainlynotwantinginvigour。Hedefiedthreatsoftarandfeathers；putaportraitofGeorgeIIIinhisshop-window；andgloriedinBritishvictories，and，inhisownopinion，keptAmericanpolicystraight。Hehad，however，endedbymakingAmericatoohottoholdhim；andcamebacktodeclarethatrepublicanismmeantthevilestandmostcorruptoftyrannies，andthat，asanEnglishman，hedespisedallothernationsuponearth。HewaswelcomedonhisreturnbyPitt’sgovernmentaslikelytobeausefuljournalist，andbecamethespecialadherentofWindham，theidealcountry-gentlemanandtheardentdiscipleofBurke’sprinciples。Hesetupanindependentpaperandheartilysupportedthewar。Ontherenewalofhostilitiesin1803Cobbettwroteamanifesto101directedbythegovernmenttobereadineveryparishchurchinthekingdom，inordertorousepopularfeeling。WhenWindhamcameintoofficein1806，Cobbett’sfriendssupposedthathisfortunewasmade，Yetatthisverycrisishebecameareformer。Hisconversionwasputdown，ofcourse，tohisresentmentattheneglectofministers。IdonotthinkthatCobbettwasamantowhosecharacteronecanappealasaconclusiveanswertosuchcharges。Unfortunatelyhewasnotfreefromweaknesseswhichpreventusfromdenyingthathispoliticalcoursewasaffectedbypersonalmotives。But，inspiteofweaknessesandofcountlessinconsistencies，Cobbetthadperfectlygenuineconvictionsandintensesympathieswhichsufficientlyexplainhisposition，andmakehimmoreattractivethanmanylessobviouslyimperfectcharacters。Hetellsusunconsciouslywhatwerethethoughtssuggestedtoamanpenetratedtothecorebythestrongestprejudices——theycanhardlybecalledopinions——ofthetruecountrylabourer。
　　Thelabourer，inthefirstplace，iffairlyrepresentedbyCobbett，hadnoneofthebitterfeelingagainstthenobilitywhichsmoulderedintheFrenchpeasantry，CobbettlookedbackasfondlytothesurroundingsofhisyouthasanynoblemancouldlookbacktoEtonortohiscountrymansion。Herememberedthe’sweetcountryair’roundCrooksburyHill，thesongofbirds，andtheramblesthroughheatherandwoodland。Helovedtheroughjovialsports；bull-baitingandprizefightingandsingle-stickplay。Hehadfollowedthesquire’shoundsonfoot，andadmiredwithoutjealousythesplendidgardensofthebishop’spalaceatFarnham。Squireandparsonwereanintrinsicpartofthegeneralorderofthings。ThestateoftheEnglishworkingclasseswas，heoftendeclares，thehappiestthatcouldbeimagined，102andheappealsinconfirmationtohisownmemories。Although，uponenlisting，hehadfoundthearmycorrupt，henotonlylovedthesoldierfortherestofhislife，butsharedtothefullthepatrioticexultationwhichwelcomedthe1stofJuneandtheNile，Eventothelast，hecouldnotstomachtheabandonmentofthetitle’KingofFrance’；forsolongasitwasretained，itencouragedthefarmertotellhissonthestoryofCrecyandAgincourt。103
　　What，then，alienatedCobbett?
　　Briefly，thedegradationoftheclassheloved，’Iwish，’hesaid，’toseethepoormenofEnglandwhatthepoormenofEnglandwerewhenIwasborn，andfromendeavouringtoaccomplishthistask，nothingbutthewantofmeansshallmakemedesist。’104Hehadarighttomakethatboast，andhisardourinthecausewasasunimpeachableashonourable。
　　ItexplainswhyCobbetthasstillasympatheticside。Hewasamassofroughhumannature；noprigorbundleofabstractformula，likePaineandhisRadicalsuccessors。Logicwithhimisnotinexcess，butindefect。
　　Hisdoctrinesarehopelesslyinconsistent，exceptsofarastheyrepresenthisstubbornprejudices。Anyviewwillservehispurposewhichcanbemadeaweaponofoffenceinhismultitudinousquarrels。Cobbett，liketheRadicalsofthetime，wasfrightenedbythegiganticprogressofthedebt。Hehadadvocatedwar；butthepeasantwhowasaccustomedtoreckonhisincomebypence，andhadcriedlikeachildwhenhelostthepriceofaredherring，wasalarmedbytherecklesspilingupofmillionsofindebtedness。In1806
　　hecalmlyproposedtohispatronWindhamtoputmattersstraightbyrepudiatingtheinterest。’thenationmustdestroythedebt，orthedebtwilldestroythenation，’ashearguedintheRegister。105Theproposalverylikelycausedthealienationofarespectableminister，thoughpropoundedwithanamusingairofphilosophicalmorality。Cobbett’salarmdevelopeduntilitbecametohimarevelationofthemysteryofiniquity。HisRadicalfriendsweredenouncingplacemenandjobbery，andCobbettbegantoperceivewhatwasatthebottomoftheevil。Themoneyraisedtocarryonthewarservedalsotosupportasetofbloodsuckers，whoweredrainingthenationalstrength。Already，in1804，hewaslamentingachangeduetoPitt’sfundingsystem。Theoldfamilies，hesaid，weregivingwayto’loan-jobbers，contractors，andnabobs’；andthecountrypeopleamazedtofindthattheirnewmastershadbeen’butchers，bakers，bottle-corkers，andold-clothesmen。’106BaringsandRicardosandtheirlikewereswallowinguptheoldcountrygentrywholesale；andinlateryearshereckonsup，asherides，thechangesinhisownneighbourhood。107Hisaffectionfortheoldcountry-gentlemanmightbesuperficial；buthislamentationsoverthedegradationofthepeasantrysprangfromhisheart。Itwasall，inhiseyes，partofoneprocess。