KingsmighthelpProvidence。AnewTrajanwoulddeservetobecalledthefatherofhispeople，ifheincreasedthemarriage-rate。Malthusrepliesthatthestatisticswhichtheworthymanhimselfproducedshowedconclusivelythatthemarriagesdependeduponthedeaths。Thebirthsfillupthevacancies，andtheprincewhoincreasedthepopulationbeforevacanciesarosewouldsimplyincreasetherateofmortality。60Ifyouwanttoincreaseyourbirth-ratewithoutabsolutelyproducingfamine，asheremarksafterwards，61makeyourtownsunhealthy，andencouragesettlementbymarshes。Youmightthusdoublethemortality，andwemightallmarryprematurelywithoutbeingabsolutelystarved。Hisownaimisnottosecurethegreatestnumberofbirths，buttobesurethatthegreatestnumberofthosebornmaybesupported。62TheingeniousM。Muret，again，hadfoundaSwissparishinwhichthemeanlifewasthehighestandthefecunditysmallestknown。HepiouslyconjecturesthatitmaybealawofGodthat’theforceoflifeineachcountryshouldbeintheinverseratioofitsfecundity。’Heneedsnotbetakehimselftoamiracle，saysMalthus。63Thecaseissimplythatinasmallandhealthyvillage，wherepeoplehadbecomeawareoftheimportanceofthe’preventivecheck，’theyoungpeopleputoffmarriagetilltherewasroomforthem，andconsequentlybothloweredthebirthrateandraisedtheaveragedurationoflife。
　　Nothing，saysMalthusveryforcibly，hascausedmoreerrorsthantheconfusionbetween’relativeandpositive，andbetweencauseandeffect。’64Heishereansweringtheargumentthatbecausethepoorwhohadcowswerethemostindustrious，thewaytomakethemindustriouswastogivethemcows。Malthusthinksitmoreprobablethatindustrygotthecowthanthatthecowproducedindustry。
　　Thisisatriflinginstanceofaverygeneraltruth。Peoplehadbeencontenttonoticethedeathscausedbywaranddisease，andtoinferatoncethatwhatcauseddeathmustdiminishpopulation。Malthusshowsthenecessityofobservingothercollateralresults。Thegapmaybemadesogreatastodiminishpopulation；butitmaybecompensatedbyamorerapidreproduction；
　　or，therapidityofreproductionmayitselfbethecauseofthedisease；
　　sothattoremoveonekindofmortalitymaybeonsomeoccasiontointroduceothers。Thestreamisdammedononebreachtoflowmorestronglythroughotheroutlets。65
　　Thisis，Iconceive，tosaysimplythatMalthuswasintroducingareallyscientificmethod。Thefactstakeninthetrueorderbecameatonceintelligibleinsteadofsuggestingmysteriousandirregularinterferences。Earlierwritershadbeencontenttosingleoutoneparticularsetofphenomenawithoutattendingtoitsplaceinthemoregeneralandcomplexprocesses，ofwhichtheyformedanintegralpart。Infanticide，asHumehadpointedout，mighttendtoincreasepopulation。66Inprospect，itmightencouragepeopletohavebabies；andwhenbabiescame，naturalaffectionmightpreventtheactualcarryingoutoftheintention。Tojudgeoftheactualeffect，wehavetoconsiderthewholeoftheconcretecase。Itmaybecarriedout，asapparentlyintheSouthSeaislands，sogenerallyastolimitpopulation；oritmaybe，asinChina，anindicationthatthepressureissogreatthatanumberofinfantsbecomesuperfluous。Itssuppressionmight，intheonecase，leadtoanincreaseofthepopulation；intheother，totheincreaseofotherformsofmortality。Malthus’sinvestigationsillustratethenecessityofreferringeveryparticularprocesstoitsplaceinthewholesystem，ofnotinghowanygivenchangemightsetupasetofactionsandreactionsinvirtueofthegeneralelasticityofpopulation，andthusofconstantlyreferringateverysteptothegeneralconditionsofhumanlife。Hesucceededinmakingmanypointsclear，andofshowinghowhastilymanyinferenceshadbeendrawn。Heexplained，forexample，whytherevolutionarywarshadnotdiminishedthepopulationofFrance，inspiteofthegreatnumberofdeaths，67andthusgaveanexampleofasoundmethodofinquirywhichhasexercisedagreatinfluenceuponlaterobservers。Malthuswasconstantlymisunderstoodandmisrepresented，andhisopponentsoftenallegeasfatalobjectionstohisdoctrinetheveryfactsbywhichitwasreallysupported。Butwemay，Ithink，say，thatsincehiswritingnoseriouseconomicalwriterhasadoptedtheoldhastyguesses，orhasventuredtoproposeatheorywithoutregardtotheprinciplesofwhichhefirstbroughtoutthefullsignificance。
　　V。POLITICALAPPLICATION
　　ThisItaketoindicateonerealandpermanentvalueofMalthus’swritings。Heintroducedanewmethodofapproachingthegreatsocialproblems。Thevalueofthemethodmayremain，howeverinaccuratemaybetheassumptionsoffacts，the’tendency，’ifinterpretedtomeanthatpeoplearealwaysmultiplyingtoorapidly，maybeafigment，ifitistakenascallingattentiontooneessentialfactorinthecase，itisamostimportantguidetoinvestigation，thisbringsoutanothervitalpoint。ThebearingofthedoctrineuponthepoliticalaswellasupontheeconomicalviewsoftheUtilitariansisofconspicuousimportance。Malthus’sstarting-point，aswehaveseen，wastheoppositiontothedoctrineof’perfectibility。’Hardfacts，whichGodwinandCondorcethadneglected，werefataltotheirdreams。Youhave，urgedMalthus，neglectedcertainundeniabletruthsastotheunalterablequalitiesofhumannature，and，therefore，yourtheorieswillnotwork。Therevolutionistshadopposedanideal’stateofnature’totheactualarrangementsofsociety。Theyimaginedthatthe’stateofnature’representedthedesirableconsummation，andthattheconstitutionofthe’natural’ordercouldbedeterminedfromcertainabstractprinciples。Theequalityofman，andtheabsoluterightswhichcouldbeinferredbyakindofmathematicalprocess，suppliedthenecessarydogmaticbasis。Theantithesistothestateofnaturewastheartificialstate，markedbyinequality，andmanifestingitsspiritbyluxury。
　　Kings，priests，andnobleshadsomehowestablishedthisunnaturalorder；
　　andtosweepthemawaysummarilywasthewayofbringingthenaturalorderintofullactivity。Theidealsystemwasalreadypotentiallyinexistence，andwouldbecomeactualwhenmen’smindswereonceclearedfromsuperstition，andthepoliticalmadetocorrespondtothenaturalrightsofman。TothisMalthushadreplied，aswehaveseen，thatsocialinequalitywasnotamerearbitraryproductoffraudandforce，butanexpedientnecessarytorestraintheprimitiveinstinctsofmankind。HethuscoincideswithBentham’spreferenceof’security’to’equality，’andillustratestherealsignificanceofthatdoctrine，Propertyandmarriage，thoughtheyinvolveinequality，wereinstitutionsofessentialimportance，Godwinhadpushedhistheoriestoabsoluteanarchy；tothedestructionofalllaw，forlawingeneralrepresentedcoercionoraninterferencewiththestateofnature。Malthusvirtuallyassertedthatthemetaphysicaldoctrinewasinapplicablebecause，menbeingwhattheyare，theseconclusionswereincompatiblewitheventhefirststagesofsocialprogress。Thismeans，again，thatforthemetaphysicalmethodMalthusissubstitutingascientificmethod。Insteadofregardingallgovernmentasakindofmysteriousinterventionfromwithout，whichhassomehowintroducedafataldiscordintothenaturalorder，heinquireswhatarethefacts；howlawhasbeenevolved；andforwhatreason。Hisansweris，inbrief，thatlaw，order，andinequalityhavebeenabsolutelynecessaryinordertolimittendencieswhichwouldotherwisekeepmeninastateofhopelesspovertyanddepression。
　　Thisgivesthe’differentia’
　　oftheUtilitarianconsideredasonespeciesofthegenus’Radical。’Malthus’scriticismofPaineissignificant。68HeagreeswithPainethatthecauseofpopularrisingsis’wantofhappiness。’ButPaine，heremarks，was’inmanyimportantpointstotallyignorantofthestructureofsociety’；
　　andhasfallenintotheerrorofattributingallwantofhappinesstogovernment。
　　Consequently，Paineadvocatesaplanfordistributingtaxesamongthepoorestclasses，whichwouldaggravatetheevilsahundredfold。HefullyadmitswithPainethatmanhasrights。Thetruelineofanswerwouldbetoshowwhatthoserightsare。TogivethisanswerisnotMalthus’spresentbusiness；
　　butthereisoneright，atanyrate，whichamandoesnotandcannotpossess：
　　namely，the’righttosubsistencewhenhislabourwillnotfairlypurchaseit。’Hedoesnotpossessitbecausehecannotpossessit；totrytosecureitistotryto’reversethelawsofnature，’andthereforetoproducecruelsufferingbypractisingan’inhumandeceit。’TheAbbé；Raynalhadsaidthatamanhadarighttosubsist’beforeallsociallaws。’Manhadthesameright，repliedMalthus，ashehadtoliveahundredorathousandyears。Hemaylive，ifhecanwithoutinterferingwithothers。Sociallawshave，infact，enlargedthepowerofsubsistence；butneitherbeforenoraftertheirinstitutioncouldanunlimitednumbersubsist。Briefly，thequestionoffactcomesbeforethequestionofright，andthefaultoftherevolutionarytheoristswastosettletherightwithoutreferencetothepossibilityofmakingtherightcorrespondtothefact。
　　HenceMalthusdrawshismostemphaticpoliticalmoral。Theadmissionthatallevilisduetogovernmentisthewaytotyranny。Makemenbelievethatgovernmentistheonecauseofmisery，andtheywillinevitablythrowthewholeresponsibilityupontheirrulers；seekforredressbycureswhichaggravatethedisease；andstrengthenthehandsofthosewhopreferevendespotismtoanarchy。This，heintimates，istheexplanationoftherepressivemeasuresinwhichthecountry-gentlemenhadsupportedPitt。Thepeoplehadfanciedthatbydestroyinggovernmenttheywouldmakebreadcheap；governmentwasforcedtobetyrannicalinordertoresistrevolution；whileitssupporterswereledto’giveupsomeofthemostvaluableprivilegesofEnglishmen。’69Itisthenofvitalimportancetosettlewhatisandwhatisnottobesetdowntogovernment。Malthus，infact，holdsthattherealevilsareduetounderlyingcauseswhichcannotbedirectlyremoved，thoughtheymaybediminishedorincreased，bylegislators。Governmentcandosomethingbygivingsecuritytoproperty，andbymakinglawswhichwillraisetheself-respectofthelowerclasses。Buttheeffectofsuchlawsmustbeslowandgradual；andtheerrorwhichhasmostcontributedtothatdelayintheprogressoffreedom，whichis’sodishearteningtoeveryliberalmind，’70istheconfusionastothetruecausesofmisery。Thus，ashehasalreadyurged，professedeconomistscouldstillbelieve，solongafterthepublicationofAdamSmith’swork，thatitwas’inthepowerofthejusticesofthepeaceorevenoftheomnipotenceofparliamenttoalterbyafiatthewholecircumstancesofthecountry。’71Yetmenwhosawtheabsurdityoftryingtofixthepriceofprovisionswerereadytoproposetofixtherateofwages。Theydidnotseethatonetermoftheproportionimpliedtheother。Malthus’swholecriticismofthepoor-law，alreadynoticed，isacommentaryuponthistext。Itisconnectedwithageneraltheoryofhumannature。Theauthorofnature，hesays，haswiselymade’thepassionofself-lovebeyondexpressionstrongerthanthepassionofbenevolence。’72Hemeans，asheexplains，thateverymanhastopursuehisownwelfareandthatofhisfamilyashisprimaryobject。Benevolence，ofcourse，isthe’sourceofourpurestandmostrefinedpleasures，’andsoforth；butitshouldcomeinasasupplementtoself-love。Thereforewemustneveradmitthatmenhaveastrictrighttoreliefthatistoinjuretheveryessentialsocialforce。’Hardasitmayseeminindividualinstances，dependentpovertyoughttobehelddisgraceful。’73Thespiritofindependenceorself-helpistheonethingnecessary。’Thedesireofbetteringourconditionandthefearofmakingitworse，likethevismedicatrixinphysics，isthevismedicatrixnaturaeinpolitics，andiscontinuallycounteractingthedisordersarisingfromnarrowhumaninstitutions。’74Itisonlybecausethepoor-lawshavenotquitedestroyedit，thattheyhavenotquiteruinedthecountry。ThepithofMalthus’steachingisfairlyexpressedinhislastlettertoSenior。75Heholdsthattheimprovementintheconditionofthegreatmassofthelabouringclassesshouldbeconsideredasthemaininterestofsociety。Toimprovetheircondition，itisessentialtoimpressthemwiththeconvictionthattheycalldomuchmoreforthemselvesthanotherscandoforthem，andthattheonlysourceofpermanentimprovementistheimprovementoftheirmoralandreligioushabits。Whatgovernmentcando，therefore，istomaintainsuchinstitutionsasmaystrengthenthevismedicatrix，or’desiretobetterourcondition，’whichpoor-lawshaddirectlytendedtoweaken，HemaintainsinhislettertoSenior，thatthisdesireis’perfectlyfeeble’comparedwiththetendencyofthepopulationtoincrease，andoperatesinaveryslightdegreeuponthegreatmassofthelabouringclass。76Still，heholdsthatonthewholethe’preventivechecks’havebecomestrongerrelativelytothepositive，77and，atanyrate，allproposalsmustbejudgedbytheirtendencytostrengthenthepreventive。
　　Malthuswasnotathoroughgoingsupporterofthe’do-nothing’doctrine。Heapprovedofanationalsystemofeducation，andoftheearlyfactoryacts，thoughonlyasappliedtoinfantlabour。So，asweshallsee，didalltheUtilitarians。The’individualism，’