66。Essay，i，75bk。
　　i，ch。v。
　　67。Ibid。，bk。ii，ch。vi。
　　68。Essay，ii，318
　　bk。iv，ch。vi。
　　69。Essay，ii，315
　　bk。iv。ch。v。
　　70。Ibid。，ii，326bk。iv，ch。vi。
　　71。Ibid。，ii，78bk。iii，ch。v。
　　72。Essay，ii，454
　　Appendix。
　　73Ibid。，ii，82bk。iii，ch。vi。
　　74。Ibid。，ii，90bk。iii，ch。vi。
　　75。Senior’sThreeLectures，p。86。
　　76。Senior’sThreeLectures，p。60。
　　77。Essay，i，534
　　bk。ii，ch。xiii。
　　78。Smith’sWorks1859，i，295。
　　79。ObservationsontheEffectsoftheCorn-Laws，1814；InquiryintotheNatureandProgressofRent，1815；andTheGroundsofanOpiniononthePolicyofrestrictingtheImportationofForeignCorn，intendedasanappendixtotheObservationsontheCorn-Laws。
　　80。InquiryintoRent，p。1。
　　81。Ibid。，p。16。
　　82。Essay，ii，35
　　bk。iii，ch。ii。
　　83InquiryintoRent，p。20。
　　84。Ibid。，p。18。
　　85。Ibid。，p。38。
　　86。InquiryintoRent，p。
　　20。
　　87。Ibid。，p。37。
　　88。EssaysontheApplicationofCapitaltoLand，byaFellowofUniversityCollege，Oxford，1815。
　　89。Essay，p。19。
　　90。InAnInquiryintotheNatureoftheCorn-Laws，andagain1801inObservationsonAgriculture，etc。，vol。v，401-51。
　　91。PoliticalWorks，i，485，etc。Inthispaper，Imayadd，Cobbett，notyetaRadical，acceptsMalthus’sviewofthetendencyofthehumanspeciestomultiplymorequicklythanitssupport。HedoesnotmentionMalthus，butspeaksofthebeliefasuniversallyadmitted，andafterwardsillustratesitamusinglybysayingthat，inhisploughboydays，heusedtowonderthattherewasalwaysjustenoughhayforthehorsesandenoughhorsesforthehay。
　　Chapter5：RicardoI。Ricardo’sStarting-PointDavidRicardo，1born19thApril1772，wasthesonofaDutchJewwhohadsettledinEngland，andmademoneyupontheStockExchange。Ricardohadadesultoryeducation，andwasemployedinbusinessfromhisboyhood。Heabandonedhisfather’screed，andmarriedanEnglishwomansoonafterreachinghismajority。Hesetupforhimselfinbusiness，and，atatimewhenfinancialtransactionsuponanunprecedentedscaleweregivinggreatopportunitiesforspeculators，hemadealargefortune，andabout1814boughtanestateatGatcombePark，Gloucestershire。Hewithdrewsoonafterwardsfrombusiness，andin1819
　　becamememberofparliament。Hisdeathon11thSeptember1823cutshortapoliticalcareerfromwhichhisperhapstoosanguinefriendsanticipatedgreatresults。Hisinfluenceinhisowndepartmentofinquiryhadbeen，meanwhile，ofthegreatestimportance。Hehadshowninhisyouthsomeinclinationforscientificpursuits；heestablishedalaboratory，andbecameamemberofscientificsocieties。TheperusalofAdamSmith’sWealthofNationsin1799gavehimaninterestintheapplicationofscientificmethodstothequestionswithwhichhewasmostconversant。AcceptingAdamSmithastheleadingauthority，heproceededtothinkoutforhimselfcertaindoctrines，whichappearedtohimtohavebeeninsufficientlyrecognisedbyhisteacher。
　　Thefirstresultofhisspeculationswasapamphletpublishedin1809uponthedepreciationofthecurrency。Uponthattopichespokeasanexpert，andhismaindoctrineswereacceptedbythefamousBullionCommittee。Ricardothusbecamearecognisedauthorityononegreatsetofproblemsofthehighestimmediateinterest。Malthus’sInquiryintoRentsuggestedanotherpamphlet；andin1817，encouragedbythewarmpressureofhisfriend，JamesMill，hepublishedhischiefbook，thePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomyandTaxation。ThisbecametheeconomicBibleoftheUtilitarians。
　　Thetaskofacommentatororinterpreteris，forvariousreasons，adifficultone。
　　ThereisacertainanalogybetweenRicardoandaverydifferentwriter，BishopButler。Eachofthemproducedagreateffectbyashorttreatise，andineachcasethebookowedverylittletotheordinaryliterarygraces。Ricardo’swantofliterarytraining，orhisnaturaldifficultyofutterance，madehisstylestillworsethanButler’s；but，likeButler，hecommandsourrespectbyhisobvioussincerityandearnestness。Heiscontentwhenhehassoexpressedhisargumentthatitcanbeseizedbyanattentivereader。Heisincapableof，orindifferentto，clearandorderlyexpositionofprinciples。Thelogicisthere，ifyouwilltakethetroubletolookforit，Perhapsweoughttobeflatteredbythistacitrelianceuponourpatience，’You，’Ricardo，likeButler，seemstosaytous，’areanxiousfortruth：youdonotcareforornament，andmaybetrustedtoworkoutthefullapplicationofmyprinciples。’
　　Inanotherrespectthetwoarealike。Butler’sargumenthasimpressedmanyreadersasademolitionofhisowncase。Itprovokesrevoltinsteadofadhesion。Ricardo，anorthodoxeconomist，laiddownprincipleswhichwereadoptedbySocialiststoupsethisownassumptions。SuchaGodasyouworship，saidButler’sopponents，isanunjustbeing，andthereforeworsethannoGod。Suchasystemasyoudescribe，saidRicardo’sopponents，isanembodimentofinjustice，andthereforetoberadicallydestroyed。Admittingthelogic，theargumentmaybereadasareductioadabsurduminbothcases。
　　Ricardohasinvolvedhimselfincertainspecialdifficulties。Inthefirstplace，hepresupposesfamiliaritywithAdamSmith。ThePrinciplesisarunningcommentuponsomeofSmith’stheories，andnoattemptismadetoreducethemtosystematicorder。
　　Hestartsbylayingdownpropositions，theproofofwhichcomesafterwards，andisthenratherintimatedthanexpresslygiven。HeadoptstheterminologywhichSmithhadacceptedfrompopularuse，2andoftenappliesitinaspecialsignificance，whichisatleastliabletobemisunderstoodbyhisreaders，orforgottenbyhimself。Itisdifficult，again，tofeelsurewhethersomeofhisstatementsaretobetakenaspositiveassertionsoffact，ormerelyasconvenientassumptionsforthepurposesofhisargument。
　　Ricardohimself，asappearsinhisletters，waspainfullyawareofhisownawkwardnessofexpression，anduponthatpointaloneallhiscriticsseemtobeintolerableagreement。Happily，itwillbeenoughformypurposeifIcanlaydownhisessentialpremiseswithoutfollowinghimtotheremoterdeductions。
　　Ricardo’spamphletuponMalthus1815givesastarting-point。RicardocordiallyadoptsMalthus’stheoryofrent，butdeclaresthatitisfataltosomeofMalthus’sconclusions。
　　Malthus，wehaveseen，wishedtoregardrentasinsomesenseagiftofProvidence——apositiveblessingduetothefertilityofthesoil。Ricardomaintains，onthecontrary，that’theinterestofthelandlordisnecessarilyopposedtotheinterestofeveryotherclassinthecommunity。’3Thelandlordisprosperouswhencornisscarceanddear；allotherpersonswhenitisplentifulandcheap。ThisfollowsuponMalthus’sownshowing。
　　Asmenareforcedtohaverecoursetoinferiorsoils，thelandlordobtainsalargershareofthewholeproduce；and，moreover，sincecornalsobecomesmorevaluable，willhavealargershareofamorevaluableproduct。Thequestionapparentlyindispute——whetherweshouldbegladthatsomelandisbetterthantheworst，orsorrybecauseallisnotequaltothebest——seemsratheridle。Therealquestion，however，iswhetherrent，beingablessing，shouldbekeptupbyprotection，4or，beingacurse，shouldbebroughtdownbycompetition?Whatistherealworkingofthesystem?Setthetradefree，saysRicardo，andthecapitalwillbewithdrawnfromthepoorlandandemployeduponmanufactures，tobeexchangedforthecornofothercountries。5Thechangemustcorrespondtoamoreadvantageousdistributionofcapital，oritwouldnotbeadopted。
　　Theprincipleinvolvedinthislastpropositionis，headds，oneofthe’bestestablishedinthescienceofpoliticaleconomy，andbynooneismorereadilyadmittedthanbyMr。Malthus。’Toenforceprotectionwouldbe，onMalthus’sillustration，tocompelustousethe’worstmachines，when，atalessexpense，wecouldhiretheverybestfromourneighbours。’6Briefly，then，thelandlord’sinterestisopposedtothenationalinterest，becauseitenforcesaworsedistributionofcapital。Hecompelsustogetcornfromhisworstland，insteadofgettingitindirectly，butingreaterquantity，fromourspinning-jennies。
　　ForRicardo，asforMalthus，theultimatedrivingforceisthepressureofpopulation。Themassofmankindisalwaysstrugglingtoobtainfood，andisabletomultiplysorapidlyastoexhaustanyconceivableincreaseofsupplies。Thelandlordclassaloneprofits。Thegreaterthestruggleforsupplythegreaterwillbetheshareofthewholeproducewhichmustbesurrenderedtoit。Beyondthis，however，liesthefurtherproblemwhichspeciallyoccupiedRicardo。