85。ThispointpuzzlesDestuttdeTracy。Allerror,hesays,arisesinjudgments:’Cependantlesjugements,lesperceptionsderapports,entantqueperceptionsquenousavonsactuellement,sontaussicertainesetaussiré;ellesquetouteslesautres。’-É;lé;mentsd’Idé;ologie1865,iii,449。
86。Analysis,ii,6,7。
87。Analysis,ii,18n。
88。Analysis,ii,24n。
89。Ibid。,ii,132-33。
90。Analysis,ii,67-69。
91。Analysis,ii,113n。
92。Ibid。,i,97n。
93。ProfessorBainpointsoutthatMillisoccasionallyconfusedbyhisignoranceofthetripledivision,intellect,feelings:andwill,introducedinthenextgeneration-Analysis,ii,180n。
94。Analysis,ii,181-83。
95。Analysis,ii,351。
96。Alsoprivatelyprintedin1830。Latereditions,editedbyWhewell,appearedin1836,1862,1873。
Iquotethelast。M。Napier’sCorrespondence,pp。57-59,forthecomposition。
97。Mill’sFragmentPreface。
98。SeeBain’sJamesMill,pp。374,415-18。
99。Fragment,pp。
190,192,213,298,307,326。
100。Ibid。,p。210。
101。EthicalPhilosophy1873,pp。188,193。
102。M。Napier’sCorrespondence,p。25。
103。EssayonSirJ。Mackintosh。
104。EssayonLordHolland。
105。Lectures,p。
500Lect。lxxv。
106。Ibid。,p。519Lect。
lxxvii。
107。Ibid。,p。522Lect。
lxxviii。
108。EthicalPhilosophyHobbes,pp。62-64。
109。Ibid。,p。85。
110。Ibid。,p。145。
111。Ibid。,p。9。
112。Ibid。,p。120。
113。EthicalPhilosophy,pp。14,170。
114。Ibid。,p。197。
115。Ibid。,p。248。
116。Ibid。,p。204。
117。EthicalPhilosophy,p。242。
118。Ibid。,p。251。
119。Ibid。,p。262。
120。Ibid。,p。264。
121。Ibid。,p。169。
122。Fragment,p。
173。
123。Ibid。,p。323。
124。Ibid。,p。221。
125。Fragment,p。
247。MackintoshquotesMill’sAnalysisatp。197。Ithadonlyjustappeared。
126。Fragment,p。
11。
127。Fragment,p。
246,etc。
128。Ibid。,p。246。
129。Ibid。,p。269,270。
130。Cf。Newman’sApologia。
’TheCatholicChurchholdsitbetterforthesunandmoontodropfromheaven,fortheearthtofail,andforallthemillionsonittodieofstarvationinextremestagony,sofarastemporalafflictiongoes,thanthatonesoul,-Iwillnotsayshouldbelost,butshouldcommitonsinglevenialsin,tellonewilfuluntruth,orshouldstealonepoorfarthingwithoutexcuse。’Ishouldstealthefarthingandassumethe’excuse。’I
confessthatIwouldnotonlylie,butshouldthinklyingrightunderthesupposedcircumstances。
131。Autobiography,p。51。
132。Fragment,p。
251。
133。Vol。i,p。257。
134。Fragment,p。
161。
135。Fragment,pp。
315-16。
136。Ibid。,p。164。
137。Ibid。,pp。320-22。
138。Fragment,p。
102。
139。Ibid。,p。162。
140。Analysis,p。
73。
141。Fragment,p。
209。
142。Fragment,p。
316。
143。Atonepoint,asJ。
S。Millnotes,hespeaksofan’unsatisfieddesire’asamotive,whichseemstoindicateapresentfeeling;butthisisnothisusualview-Analysis,ii,361,377n。
144。Analysis,ii,233n。Milladdsthatthoughhisfatherexplainsthe’intellectual,’hedoesnotexplainthe’animal’elementintheaffections。This,however,isirrelevantformypurpose。
145。Fragment,pp。
51-52。
146。Analysis,ii,292-300;Fragment,pp。247-65。NoteMill’sinterpretationofthistheoryof’praiseworthiness。’-Analysis,ii,298。
Chapter8:ReligionI。PhilipBeauchampTheapplicationofMill’sAnalysistotheviewsoforthodoxtheologiansrequired,onemighthavesupposed,aslittleinterpretationasaslapintheface。Butarespectablephilosophermaylaydownwhatpremiseshepleasesifhedoesnotavowedlydrawhisconclusions。Millcouldargueinperfectsafetyagainstthefoundationsoftheology,whileRichardCarlilewasbeingsenttogaolagainandagainforattackingthesuperstructure。TheUtilitariansthoughtthemselvesjustifiedintakingadvantageoftheillogicalityofmankind。Whetheritwasthattherulingpowershadnophilosophicalprinciplesthemselves,orthattheydidnotseewhatinferenceswouldfollow,orthattheythoughtthattheaveragepersonwasincapableofdrawinginferences,theydrewthelineatthispoint。Youmayopenlymaintaindoctrinesinconsistentwithalltheology,butyoumustnotpointouttheinconsistency。TheUtilitarianscontentedthemselveswithsappingthefortinsteadofriskinganopenassault。
Ifitsdefenderswereblindtotheobviousconsequencesoftheprocedure,somuchthebetter。Inprivate,therewasobviouslynowantofplainspeaking。
InBentham’sMSS。TheChristianreligionisnicknamed’Jug’astheshortfor’Juggernaut。’HeandhisfriendswereasanxiousasVoltairetocrushthe’infamous,’buttheywoulddoitbyindirectmeans。Theyarguedresolutelyformorefreedom;andSamuelBailey’sessayupontheformationofopinions——avigorousargumentonbehalfofthewidestpossibletoleration——wasenthusiasticallypraisedbyJamesMillintheWestminsterReview。Forthepresenttheycarefullyabstainedfromthedirectavowalofobnoxiousopinions,whichwerestilllegallypunishable,andwhichwouldundoubtedlyexcitethestrongesthostility。Bentham,aswehaveseen,hadventured,thoughanonymously,toassailthechurchcatechismandtocross-examineSt。Paul。
Oneremarkablemanifestogaveafullerutterancetohisopinions。AbookcalledTheAnalysisoftheInfluenceofNaturalReligionontheTemporalHappinessofMankind,by’PhilipBeauchamp,’appearedin1822。ThepublisherwasRichardCarlile,whowasthen’safeinDorchestergaol。’
Nolegalnoticewastakenof’PhilipBeauchamp。’Thereasonmayhavebeenthatthebookexcitedverylittleattentioningeneral。Yetitisprobablyasforcibleanattackashasoftenbeenwrittenuponthepopulartheology。
Thenameof’PhilipBeauchamp’coveredacombinationofBenthamandGeorgeGrote。1Thebook,therefore,representstheviewofrepresentativeUtilitariansofthefirstandthirdgeneration,andclearlyexpressedtherealopinionsofthewholeparty。InhisposthumousessaysJ。S。Millspeaksofitastheonlyexplicitdiscussionknowntohimofthequestionoftheutility,asdistinguishedfromthequestionofthetruth,ofreligion。
Obviously,itwasdesirabletoapplytheuniversaltesttoreligiousbelief,andthisverypithyandcondensedstatementshowstheresult。
Ashortsummarymayindicatetheessenceoftheargument。Itisonlynecessarytoobservethatthephrase’naturalreligion’ispartofthedisguise。Itenablestheauthortoavoidanexplicitattackuponrevelation;butitissuperabundantlyobviousthattheword’natural’issuperfluous。Revelationisreallyafiction,andallreligionsare’natural。’Areligioniscalleda’superstition,’as’PhilipBeauchamp’remarksatstarting,whenitsresultsarethoughttobebad;andallowedtobeareligiononlywhentheyarethoughttobegood。2Thatdevicecoversthefamiliarfallacyofdistinguishingbetweenusesandabuses,and,uponthatpretence,omittingtotakebadconsequencesintoaccount。Wemustavoiditbydefiningreligionandthentracingalltheconsequences,goodorbad。Religionisaccordinglytakentomeanthebeliefintheexistenceof’anAlmightyBeing,bywhompainsandpleasureswillbedispensedtomankindduringaninfiniteandfuturestateofexistence。’
Thedefinitionisalreadycharacteristic。’Religion’maybeusedinafarwidersense,correspondingtoaphilosophyoftheuniverse,whetherthatphilosophydoesordoesnotincludethisparticulardoctrine。But’PhilipBeauchamp’s’assumptionisconvenientbecauseitgivesarationalreasoningtotheproblemofutility。Religionistakentobesomethingadventitiousorsuperimposeduponotherbeliefs,andwecanthereforeintelligiblyaskwhetheritdoesgoodorharm。Takingthisdefinitionforgranted,letusconsidertheresults。