Thesephrasesmaypossiblybeinterpretedinasenselessparadoxicalthantheobviousone。Tooke’sphilosophy，ifsoitistobecalled，wasneverfullyexpounded。Heburnedhispapersbeforehisdeath，andwedonotknowwhathewouldhavesaidabout’verbs，’whichmusthaveled，onewouldsuppose，tosomefurthertreatmentofrelations，noruponthesubject，whichasStephenstellsus，wasmostfullytreatedinhiscontinuation，thevalueofhumantestimony。
　　IfTookewasnotaphilosopherhewasamanofremarkablyshrewdcynicalcommon-sense，whothoughtphilosophyidlefoppery。Hisbookmadeagreatsuccess。Stephenstellsus11*thatitbroughthim£；4000or£；5000。
　　Hazlittin1810publishedagrammarprofessingtoincorporateforthefirsttimeHorneTooke’s’discoveries。’ThebookwasadmiredbyMackintosh，12*
　　who，ofcourse，didnotaccepttheprinciples，andhadawarmdiscipleinCharlesRichardson1775-1865，whowroteinitsdefenceagainstDugaldStewartandaccepteditsauthorityinhiselaboratedictionaryoftheEnglishlanguage。13*
　　ButitschiefinterestforusisthatitwasagreatauthoritywithJamesMill。Millacceptstheetymologies，andthereismuchincommonbetweenthetwowriters，thoughMillhadlearnedhismaindoctrineselsewhere，especiallyfromHobbes。Whattheagreementreallyshowsishowtheintellectualidiosyncrasywhichiscongenialto’nominalism’inphilosophywasalsocongenialtoTooke’smatteroffactradicalismandtotheUtilitarianpositionofBenthamandhisfollowers。
　　II。DUGALDSTEWART
　　IfEnglishphilosophywasablank，therewasstillaleaderofhighreputationinScotland。DugaldStewart1753-1828hadaconsiderableinfluenceupontheUtilitarians。Herepresented，Ontheonehand，thedoctrineswhichtheythoughtthemselvesspeciallyboundtoattack，anditmayperhapsbeheldthatinsomewayshebetrayedtothemthekeyoftheposition。Stewart14*
　　wassonofaprofessorofmathematicsatEdinburgh。HestudiedatGlasgow1771-72wherehebecameReid’sfavouritepupilanddevotedfriend。In1772
　　hebecametheassistant，andin1775thecolleague，ofhisfather，andheappearstohavehadaconsiderableknowledgeofmathematics。In1785hesucceededAdamFergusonasprofessorofmoralphilosophyandlecturedcontinuouslyuntil1810。HethengaveuphisactivedutiestoThomasBrown，devotinghimselftothecompletionandpublicationofthesubstanceofhislectures。UponBrown’sdeathin1820，heresignedaposttowhichhewasnolongerequal。
　　Aparalyticstrokein1822weakenedhim，thoughhewasstillabletowrite。
　　Hediedin1828。
　　IfStewartnowmakesnogreatmarkinhistoriesofphilosophy，hispersonalinfluencewasconspicuous。Cockburndescribeshimasofdelicateappearance，withamassivehead，bushyeyebrows，grayintelligenteyes，flexiblemouthandexpressivecountenance。Hisvoicewassweetandhisearexquisite。Cockburnneverheardabetterreader，andhismanners，thoughratherformal，weregracefulanddignified。JamesMill，afterhearingPittandFox，declaredthatStewartwastheirsuperiorineloquence。AtEdinburgh，thenattheheightofitsintellectualactivity，heheldhisownamongtheablestmenandattractedtheloyaltyoftheyounger。StudentscamenotonlyfromScotlandbutfromEngland，theUnitedStates，FranceandGermany。15*Scottwontheprofessor’sapprovalbyanessayonthe’CustomsoftheNorthernNations。’Jeffrey，Horner，CockburnandMackintoshwereamonghisdisciples。HislecturesuponPoliticalEconomywereattendedbySydneySmith，JeffreyandBrougham，andoneofhislasthearerswasLordPalmerston。Parrlookeduptohimasagreatphilosopher，andcontributedtohisworksanessayupontheetymologyoftheword’sublime，’
　　toovasttobeprintedwhole。StewartwasanupholderofWhigprinciples，whentheScottishgovernmentwasinthehandsofthestaunchestTories。TheirreverentyoungEdinburghReviewerstreatedhimwithrespect，andtosomeextentappliedhistheorytopolitics。StewartwasthephilosophicalheirofReid；and，onemaysay，wasaWhigbothinphilosophyandinpolitics。
　　Hewasarationalist，butwithinthelimitsfixedbyrespectability；andhedreadedtherevolutioninpolitics，andbelievedinthesurpassingmeritsoftheBritishConstitutionasinterpretedbytherespectableWhigs。
　　Stewartrepresentsthe’common-sense’doctrine。Thatname，asheobserves，lendsitselftoanequivocation。Common-senseisgenerallyusedasnearlysynonymouswith’motherwit，’theaverageopinionoffairlyintelligentmen；
　　andhewouldprefertospeakofthe’fundamentallawsofbelief。’16*Therecan，however，benodoubtthatthedoctrinederivedmuchofitsstrengthfromtheapparentconfirmationofthe’averageopinion’bythe’fundamentallaws。’Ononeside，saidReid，areallthevulgar；ontheotherallthephilosophers。
　　’Inthisdivision，tomygreathumiliation，Ifindmyselfclassedwiththevulgar。’17*Reid，infact，hadopposedthetheoriesofHumeandBerkeleybecausetheyledtoaparadoxicalscepticism。Ifitbe，asReidheld，alegitimateinferencefromBerkeleythatamanmayaswellrunhisheadagainstapost，therecanbenodoubtthatitisshockingtocommonsenseineveryacceptationoftheword。Thereasons，however，whichReidandStewartallegedfornotperformingthatfeattookaspecialform，whichIamcompelledtonoticebrieflybecausetheysetupthemarkforthewholeintellectualartilleryoftheUtilitarians。Reid，infact，inventedwhatJ。S。Millcalled’intuitions。’
　　ToconfuteintuitionistsandgetridofintuitionswasonemainpurposeofallMill’sspeculations。What，then，isan’intuition’?ToexplainthatfullyitwouldbenecessarytowriteoncemorethathistoryofthephilosophicalmovementfromDescartestoHume，whichhasbeensummarisedandelucidatedbysomanywritersthatitshouldbeasplainastheroadfromSt。Paul’stoTempleBar。IamforcedtoglanceatthepositiontakenbyReidandStewartbecauseithasamostimportantbearinguponthewholeUtilitarianscheme。
　　Reid’smainservicetophilosophywas，inhisownopinion，18*thatherefutedthe’idealsystem’ofDescartesandhisfollowers。Thatsystem，hesays，carriedinitswombthemonster，scepticism，whichcametothebirthin1739，19*
　　thedateofHume’searlyTreatise。ToconfuteHume，therefore，whichwasReid’sprimaryobject，itwasnecessarytogobacktoDescartes，andtoshowwherehedeviatedfromtherighttrack。Inotherwords，wemusttracethegenealogyof’ideas。’Descartes，asReidadmitted，hadrenderedimmenseservicestophilosophy。Hehadexplodedthescholasticsystem，whichhadbecomeameremassoflogomachiesandanincubusuponscientificprogress。Hehadagainbeenthefirstto’drawadistinctlinebetweenthematerialandtheintellectualworld’；20*andReidapparentlyassumesthathehaddrawnitcorrectly。OnecharacteristicoftheCartesianschoolisobvious。Descartes，agreatmathematicianattheperiodwhenmathematicalinvestigationswereshowingtheirenormouspower，inventedamathematicaluniverse。Mathematicspresentedthetruetypeofscientificreasoninganddeterminedhiscanonsofinquiry。The’essence’ofmatter，hesaid，wasspace。Theobjectiveworld，aswehavelearnedtocallit，issimplyspacesolidifiedorincarnategeometry。
　　Itspropertiesthereforecouldbegivenasasystemofdeductionsfromfirstprinciples，anditformsacoherentandself-subsistentwhole。Meanwhiletheessenceofthesoulisthought。Thoughtandmatterareabsolutelyopposed。
　　Theyarecontraries，havingnothingincommon。Reality，however，seemstobelongtotheworldofspace。Thebrain，too，belongstothatworld，andmotionsinthebrainmustbedeterminedasapartofthematerialmechanism。
　　Insomewayorother’ideas’correspondtothesemotions；thoughtodefinethewaytriedalltheingenuityofDescartes’successors。Inanycaseanideais’subjective’：itisathought，notathing。Itisashifting，ephemeralentitynottobefixedorgrasped。Yet，somehoworother，itexists，andit’represents’realities；thoughthedivinepowerhastobecalledintoguaranteetheaccuracyoftherepresentation。Theobjectiveworld，again，doesnotrevealitselftousassimplymadeupof’primaryqualities’；weknowofitonlyassomehowendowedwith’secondary’orsense-givenqualities：
　　asvisible，tangible，audible，andsoforth。Thesequalitiesareplainly’subjective’；theyvaryfrommantoman，andfrommomenttomoment：theycannotbemeasuredorfixed；andmustberegardedasaproductinsomeinexplicablewayoftheactionofmatteruponmind；unrealor，atanyrate，notindependententities。
　　InLocke’sphilosophy，the’ideas，’legitimateorillegitimatedescendantsoftheCartesiantheories，playamostprominentpart。Locke’sadmirablecommon-sensemadehimtheleaderwhoembodiedagrowingtendency。Theempiricalsciencesweregrowing；andLocke，astudentofmedicine，couldnotethefallacieswhicharisefromneglectingobservationandexperiment，andattemptingtopenetratetotheabsoluteessencesandentities。Newton’sgreatsuccesswasduetoneglectingimpossibleproblemsaboutthenatureofforceinitself’actionatadistance’andsoforth——andattentiontothesphereofvisiblephenomena。Theexcessivepretensionsoftheframersofmetaphysicalsystemshadledtohopelesspuzzlesandmerelyverbalsolutions。Locke，therefore，insisteduponthenecessityofascertainingthenecessarylimitsofhumanknowledge。Allourknowledgeofmaterialfactsisobviouslydependentinsomewayuponoursensations——howeverMeetingorunrealtheymaybe。Therefore，thematerialsciencesmustdependuponsense-givendataoruponobservationandexperiment。Humegivestheultimatepurpose，alreadyimpliedinLocke’sessay，whenhedescribeshisfirsttreatiseonthetitlepageasan’attempttointroducetheexperimentalmodeofreasoningintomoralsubjects。’Now，asReidthinks，theeffectofthiswastoconstructourwholeknowledgeoutoftherepresentativeideas。Theempiricalfactorissoemphasisedthatweloseallgraspoftherealworld。Locke，indeed，thoughheinsistsuponthederivationofourwholeknowledgefrom’ideas，’leavesrealitytothe’primaryqualities’withoutclearlyexpoundingtheirrelationtothesecondary。ButBerkeley，alarmedbythetendencyoftheCartesiandoctrinestomaterialismandmechanicalnecessity，reducesthe’primary’tothelevelofthe’secondary，’
　　andproceedstoabolishthewholeworldofmatter。Wearethusleftwithnothingbut’ideas，’andtheideasarenaturally’subjective’andthereforeinsomesenseunreal。FinallyHumegetsridofthesoulaswellastheoutsideworld；andthen，byhistheoryof’causation，’showsthattheideasthemselvesareindependentatoms，coheringbutnotrationallyconnected，andcapableofbeingarbitrarilyjoinedorseparatedinanywaywhatever。Thustheideashaveoustedthefacts。Wecannotgetbeyondideas，andyetideasarestillpurelysubjective。The’real’isseparatedfromthephenomenal，andtruthdivorcedfromfact。Thesense-givenworldisthewholeworld，andyetisaworldofmereaccidentalconjunctionsandseparation。ThatisHume’sscepticism，andyetaccordingtoReidisthelegitimatedevelopmentofDescartes’’idealsystem。’Reid，Itakeit，wasrightinseeingthattherewasagreatdilemma。
　　Whatwasrequiredtoescapefromit?AccordingtoKant，nothinglessthanarevisionofDescartes’modeofdemarcationbetweenobjectandsubject。