Theycouldonlyamendtheargumentbysayingthatallmenwereequalinsofarastheypossessedcertainattributes。Butthoseattributescouldonlybedeterminedbyexperience，or，asBenthamwouldhaveputit，byanappealto’utility。’Itisillogical，saidtheanti-slaveryadvocate，totreatmendifferentlyOnaccountofthecolouroftheirskins。Nodoubtitisillogicalif，infact，thedifferenceofcolourdoesnotimplyadifferenceofthepowerswhichfitamanfortheenjoymentofcertainrights。Wemayatleastgrantthattheburdenofproofshouldbeuponthosewhowoulddisfranchiseallred-hairedmen。Butthisisbecauseexperienceshowsthatthedifferenceofcolourdoesnotmarkarelevantdifference。Wecannotsay，apriori，whetherthedifferencebetweenanegroandawhitemanmaynotbesogreatastoimplyincapacityforenjoymentofequalrights。Theblackskinmight——foranythingamerelogiciancansay——indicatethemindofachimpanzee。Thecaseagainstslaverydoesnotrestonthebarefactthatnegroesandwhitesbothbelongtotheclass’man，’butonthefactthatthenegrohaspowersandsensibilitieswhichfithimtoholdproperty，toformmarriages，tolearnhisletters，andsoforth。Butthatfactisundeniablytobeproved，notfromthebarelogic，butfromobservationoftheparticularcase。
　　Benthamsawwithperfectclearnessthatsoundpoliticaltheoryrequiresabasisofsolidfact。Themainpurposeofhiswholesystemwastocarryoutthatdoctrinethoroughly。Hisviewisgivenvigorouslyinthe’AnarchicalFallacies’——aminuteexaminationoftheFrenchDeclarationofRightsin1791。Hisargumentisofmercilesslength，andoccasionallysominuteastosoundlikequibbling。Thepith，however，isclearenough。’Allmenarebornandremainfreeandequalinrespectofrights’arethefirstwordsoftheDeclaration。Nobodyis’bornfree，’retortsBentham。Everybodyisborn，andlongremains，ahelplesschild。Allmenbornfree！Absurdandmiserablenonsense！Why，youarecomplaininginthesamebreaththatnearlyeverybodyisaslave。97*Tomeetthisobjection，thewordsmightbeamendedbysubstituting’oughttobe’for’is。’This，however，onBentham’sshowing，atonceintroducestheconceptionofutility，andthereforeleadstoempiricalconsiderations。
　　Theproposition，whenlaiddownasalogicalnecessity，claimstobeabsolute。
　　Thereforeitimpliesthatallauthorityisbad；theauthority，forexample，ofparentoverchild，orofhusbandoverwife；andmoreover，thatalllawstothecontraryareipsofactovoid。Thatiswhyitis’anarchical。’Itsupposesa’naturalright，’notonlyassuggestingreasonsforproposedalterationsofthelegalright，butasactuallyannihilatingtherightandthereforedestroyingallgovernment。’Naturalrights，’saysBentham，98*issimplenonsense；naturalandimprescriptiblerights’rhetoricalnonsense——nonsenseuponstilts。’For’naturalright’substituteutility，andyouhave，ofcourse，areasonableprinciple，becauseanappealtoexperience。Butlaydown’liberty’
　　asanabsoluterightandyouannihilatelaw，foreverylawsupposescoercion。
　　Onemangetslibertysimplybyrestrictingthelibertyofothers。99*WhatBenthamsubstantiallysays，therefore，isthatonthisversionabsoluterightsofindividualscouldmeannothingbutanarchy；orthatnolawcanbedefendedexceptbyareferencetofacts，andthereforeto’utility。’
　　Oneanswermightbethatthedemandisnotforabsoluteliberty，butforasmuchlibertyasiscompatiblewithequallibertyforall。ThefourtharticleoftheDeclarationsays：’Libertyconsistsinbeingabletodothatwhichisnothurtfultoanother，andthereforetheexerciseofthenaturalrightsofeachmanhasnootherboundsthanthosewhichensuretotheothermembersofthesocietytheenjoymentofthesamerights。’ThisformulacorrespondstoatheoryheldbyMrHerbertSpencer；and，asheobserves，100*heldondifferentgroundsbyKant。Bentham’sview，indicatedbyhiscriticismofthisarticleinthe’AnarchicalFallacies，’isthereforeworthamoment’snotice。Theformuladoesnotdemandtheabsolutefreedomwhichwouldcondemnallcoercionandallgovernment；butitstillseemstosuggestthatliberty，notutility，istheultimateend。Bentham’sformula，therefore，diverges。
　　Allgovernment，heholds，isanevil，becausecoercionimpliespain。Wemustthereforeminimise，thoughwecannotannihilate，government；butwemustkeeptoutilityasthesoletest。Governmentshould，ofcourse，givetotheindividualallsuchrightsasare’useful’；butitdoesnotfollow，withoutareferencetoutility，thatmenshouldnotberestrainedevenin’self-regarding’
　　conduct。Somemen，women，andchildrenrequiretobeprotectedagainsttheconsequencesoftheirown’weakness，ignorance，orimprudence。’101*Benthamadheres，thatis，tothestrictlyempiricalground。Theabsolutedoctrinerequirestobequalifiedbyareferencetoactualcircumstances：and，amongthosecircumstances，asBenthamintimates，wemustincludethecapacityofthepersonsconcernedtogovernthemselves。Carriedoutasanabsoluteprinciple，itwouldimplytheindependenceofinfants；andmustthereforerequiresomereferenceto’utility。’
　　Bentham，then，objectstotheJacobintheoryastooabsoluteandtoo’individualist。’
　　Thedoctrinebegsthequestion；ittakesforgrantedwhatcanonlybeprovedbyexperience；andthereforelaysdownasabsolutetheorieswhichareonlytrueundercertainconditionsorwithreferencetothespecialcircumstancestowhichtheyareapplied。ThatisinconsistentwithBentham’sthoroughgoingempiricism。Buthehadantagoniststomeetupontheotherside：and，inmeetingthem，hewasledtoadoctrinewhichhasbeengenerallycondemnedfortheverysamefaults——asabsoluteandindividualist。WehaveonlytoaskinwhatsenseBenthamappealedto’experience’toseehowheactuallyreachedhisconclusions。Theadherentsoftheoldtraditionappealedtoexperienceintheirownway。TheEnglishpeople，theysaid，isthefreest，richest，happiestintheworld；ithasgrownupundertheBritishConstitution：thereforetheBritishConstitutionisthebestintheworld，asBurketellsyou，andtheBritishcommonlaw，asBlackstonetellsyou，isthe’perfectionofwisdom。’
　　Bentham’sreplywasvirtuallythatalthoughhe，likeBurke，appealedtoexperience，heappealedtoexperiencescientificallyorganised，whereasBurkeappealedtomereblindtradition。Benthamistobethefounderofanewscience，foundedlikechemistryonexperiment，andhismethodsaretobeassuperiortothoseofBurkeasthoseofmodernchemiststothoseofthealchemistswhoalsoinvokedexperience。Thetrueplanwasnottothrowexperienceasidebecauseitwasallegedbytheignorantandtheprejudiced，buttointerrogateexperiencesystematically，andsotobecometheBaconortheNewtonoflegislation，insteadofwanderingoffintotheaprioriconstructionsofaDescartesoraLeibniz。
　　Benthamthusprofessestousean’inductive’insteadofthedeductivemethodoftheJacobins；butreachesthesamepracticalconclusionsfromtheotherend。Theprocessisinstructive。Heobjectedtotheexistinginequalities，notasinequalitiessimply，butasmischievousinequalities。He，aswellastheJacobins，wouldadmitthatinequalityrequiredjustification；andheagreedwiththemthat，inthiscase，therewasnojustification。Theexistingprivilegesdidnotpromotethe’greatesthappinessofthegreatestnumber。’
　　Theattackuponthe’AnarchicalFallacies’mustbetakenwiththeBookofFallacies，andtheBookofFallaciesisasustainedandvigorous，thoughacuriouslycumbrous，assaultupontheConservativearguments。ItspithmaybefoundinSydneySmith’sNoodle’sOration；butitisitselfwellworthreadingbyanyonewhocanrecognisereallyadmirabledialecticalpower，andforgivealittlecrabbednessofstyleinconsiderationofgenuineintellectualvigour。IonlynoticeBentham’sassaultuponthe’wisdomofourancestors。’
　　Afterpointingouthowmuchbetterweareentitledtojudgenowthatwehavegotridofsomanysuperstitions，andhavelearnedtoreadandwrite，herepliestothequestion，’Wouldyouhaveusspeakandactasifweneverhadanyancestors?’’Bynomeans，’hereplies；’thoughtheiropinionswereoflittlevalue，theirpracticeisworthattendingto；butchieflybecauseitshowsthebadconsequencesoftheiropinions。’’Fromfoolishopinioncomesfoolishconduct；fromfoolishconducttheseverestdisaster；andfromtheseverestdisasterthemostusefulwarning。Itisfromthefolly，notfromthewisdom，ofourancestorsthatwehavesomuchtolearn。’102*Benthamhasbecomean’ancestor，’andmayteachusbyhiserrors。PointedandvigorousasishisexposureofmanyofthesophistriesbywhichConservativesdefendedgrossabusesandtwistedtheexistenceofanyinstitutionintoanargumentforitsvalue，wegetsomemeasurefromthisofBentham’sviewofhistory。
　　Inattackinganabuse，hesays，wehavearighttoinquireintotheutilityofanyandeveryarrangement。Thepurposeofacourtofjusticeistodecidelitigation；ithastoascertainfactsandapplyrules：doesitthenascertainfactsbythemethodsmostconducivetothediscoveryoftruth?Aretherulesneedlesslycomplex，ambiguous，calculatedtogiveachancetoknaves，ortothelongestpurse?Ifso，undoubtedlytheyaremischievous。Benthamhaddoneinestimableserviceinstrippingawayallthedisguisesandtechnicalphraseswhichhadevadedtheplainissue，andthereforemadeofthelawsanunintelligiblelabyrinth。Heproceededtotreatinthesamewayofgovernmentgenerally。Doesitworkefficientlyforitsprofessedends?Isitworkedintheinterestsofthenation，orofaspecialclass，whoseinterestsconflictwiththoseofthenation?Hetreated，thatis，ofgovernmentasamanofbusinessmightinvestigateacommercialundertaking。Ifhefoundthatclerkswerelazy，ignorant，makingmoneyforthemselves，orbullyingandcheatingthecustomers，hewouldcondemnthemanagement。Benthamfoundthe’matchlessconstitution’preciselyinthisstate。Hecondemnedpoliticalinstitutionsworkedforthebenefitofaclass，andleading，especiallyinlegalmatters，toendlessabusesandchicanery。Theabuseseverywhereimply’inequality’
　　insomesense；fortheyarisefrommonopoly。Themanwhoholdsasinecure，orenjoysaprivilege，usesitforhisownprivateinterest。The’matterofcorruption，’asBenthamcalledit，wasprovidedbytheprivilegeandthesinecure。TheJacobinmightdenounceprivilegessimplyasprivileges，andBenthamdenouncethembecausetheywereusedbytheprivilegedclassforcorruptpurposes。Sofar，BenthamandtheJacobinswerequiteatone。Itmatteredlittletotheresultwhichargumenttheypreferredtouse，andwithoutdoubttheyhadaverystrongcase，anddidinfactexpressademandforjusticeandforaredressofpalpableevils。Thedifferenceseemstobethatinonecasetheappealismadeinthenameofjusticeandequality；intheothercase，inthenameofbenevolenceandutility。
　　Theimportantpointhere，however，istounderstandBentham’simplicitassumptions。J。S。Mill，incriticisinghismaster，pointsoutveryforciblythedefectsarisingfromBentham’sattitudetohistory。Hesimplycontinued，asMillthinks，thehostilitywithwhichthecriticalordestructiveschooloftheeighteenthcenturyregardedtheirancestors。Totherevolutionarypartyhistorywasarecordofcrimesandfolliesandoflittleelse。Thequestionwillmeetusagain；andhereitisenoughtoaskwhatisthereasonofhistacitimplicationofBentham’sposition。Bentham。swholeaim，asI
　　havetriedtoshow，wastobedescribedastheconstructionofascienceoflegislation。Thescience，again，wastobepurelyempirical。Itwastorestthroughoutupontheobservationoffacts。Thataim——anadmirableaim——runsthroughhiswholeworkandthatofhissuccessors。Ihavenoticed，indeed，howeasilyBenthamtookforgrantedthathismakeshiftclassificationofcommonmotivesamountedtoascientificpsychology。AsimilarassumptionthataroughsketchofascienceisthesamethingasitsdefiniteconstitutionischaracteristicoftheUtilitariansingeneral。Ascientificspiritismostdesirable；buttheUtilitarianstookaveryshortcuttoscientificcertainty。Thoughappealingtoexperience，theyreachformulaasabsoluteasany’intuitionist’coulddesire。Whatisthelogicalprocessimplied?
　　Toconstituteanempiricalscienceistoshowthatthedifferencebetweendifferentphenomenaisduesimplyto’circumstances。’Theexplanationofthefactsbecomessufficientwhenthe’law’canbestated，asthatofaunitofconstantpropertiesplacedinvaryingpositions。Thiscorrespondstotheprocedureinthephysicalsciences，wheretheUltimateaimistorepresentalllawsascorrespondingtothechangesofpositionofuniformatoms。Insocialandpoliticalchangesthegoalisthesame。J。S。MillstatesintheendofhisAutobiography103*thatonemainpurposeofhiswritingwastoshowthat’differencesbetweenindividuals，races，orsexes’aredueto’differencesincircumstances。’Infact，thisisanaimsocharacteristicfromthebeginningofthewholeschool，thatitmaybeputdownalmostasaprimarypostulate。Itwasnot，indeed，definitelyformulated；butto’explain’