Theyshouldhavebeenthelastpeopletobelievetooimplicitlyinthemagicalefficacyofpoliticalcontrivances，fortheywerefullyawarethatmanymenareknavesandmostmenfools。TheyprobablyputlittlefaithinBentham’sUtopia，exceptasaremoteideal，andanidealofunimaginativeminds。TheUtopiawasconstructedon’individualist’principles，becausecommon-sensenaturallyapprovesindividualism。Thewholesocialandpoliticalorderisclearlythesumoftheindividuals，whocombinetoformanaggregate；andtheoriesaboutsocialbondstakeonetothemysticalandsentimental。TheabsolutetendencyiscommontoBenthamandtheJacobins。Whethertheindividualbetakenasaunitofconstantproperties，orasthesubjectofabsoluterights，wereachequallyabsoluteconclusions。Whenallthesocialandpoliticalregulationsareregardedasindefinitelymodifiable，theultimatelawscometodependupontheabsoluteframeworkofunalterablefact。This，again，isoftentherightpointofviewforimmediatequestionsinwhichwemaytakeforgrantedthattheaverageindividualisinfactconstant；and，asIhavesaidinregardtoBentham’slegislativeprocess，leadstoveryrelevantandimportant，thoughnotultimate，questions。Buttherearecertainotherresultswhichrequiretobenoticed。’Individualism，’likeotherwordsthathavebecomewatchwordsofcontroversy，hasvariousshadesofmeaning，andrequiresalittlemoredefinition。
　　VII。INDIVIDUALISM
　　’Individualism’inthefirstplaceisgenerallymentionedinadifferentconnection。The’ready-made’manofwhomIhavespokenbecomesthe’economicman。’Benthamhimselfcontributedlittletoeconomictheory。HismostimportantwritingwastheDefenceofUsury，andinthis，aswehaveseen，hewassimplyaddingacorollarytotheWealthofNations。TheWealthofNationsitselfrepresentedthespiritofbusiness；therevoltofmenwhowerebuildingupavastindustrialsystemagainstthefettersimposedbytraditionallegislationandbyrulerswhoregardedindustryingeneral，asTelfordissaidtohaveregardedrivers。Riversweremeanttosupplycanals，andtradetosupplytax-gatherers。Withthisrevolt，ofcourse，Benthamwasinfullsympathy，buthereIshallonlyspeakofonedoctrineofgreatinterest，whichoccursbothinhispoliticaltreatisesandhisfeweconomicalremarks。Benthamobjected，aswehaveseen，totheabstracttheoryofequality。Yetitwastothemodeofdeductionratherthantothedoctrineitselfwhichheobjected。Hegave，infact，hisowndefence；anditisoneworthnotice。109*Theprincipleofequalityisderivative，notultimate。Equalityisgoodbecauseequalityincreasesthesumofhappiness。Thus，ashesays，110*iftwomenhave£；1000，andyoutransfer£；500fromonetotheother，youincreasetherecipient’swealthbyone-third，anddiminishtheloser’swealthbyone-half。Youthereforeaddlesspleasurethanyousubtract。Theprincipleisgivenlessmathematically111*
　　bythemoresignificantargumentthat’felicity’dependsnotsimplyonthe’matteroffelicity’orthestimulus，butalsoonthesensibilitytofelicitywhichisnecessarilylimited。Thereforebyaddingwealth——taking，forexample，fromathousandlabourerstogivetooneking——youaresupersaturatingasensibilityalreadygluttedbytakingawayfromothersagreatamountofrealhappiness。Withthisargument，whichhasoflateyearsbecomeconspicuousineconomics，heconnectsanotherofprimaryimportance。Thefirstconditionofhappiness，hesays，isnot’equality’but’security。’Nowyoucanonlyequaliseattheexpenseofsecurity。IfIamtohavemypropertytakenawaywheneveritisgreaterthanmyneighbour’s，Icanhavenosecurity。112*
　　Hence，ifthetwoprinciplesconflict，equalityshouldgiveway。Securityistheprimary，whichmustoverridethesecondary，aim。Mustthetwoprinciples，then，alwaysconflict?No；but’timeistheonlymediator。’113*Thelawmayhelptoaccumulateinequalities；butinaprosperousstatethereisa’continualprogresstowardsequality。’Thelawhastostandaside；nottomaintainmonopolies；nottorestraintrade；nottopermitentails；andthenpropertywilldiffuseitselfbyanaturalprocess，alreadyexemplifiedinthegrowthofEurope。The’pyramids’heapedupinfeudaltimeshavebeenlowered，andtheir’dé；brisspreadabroad’amongtheindustrious。HereagainweseehowBenthamvirtuallydivergesfromtheapriorischool。Theirabsolutetendencieswouldintroduce’equality’byforce；hewouldleaveittothespontaneousprogressofsecurity。HenceBenthamisinthemainanadherentofwhathecalls114*the’laissez-nousfaire’principle。Headvocatesitmostexplicitlyintheso-calledManualofPoliticalEconomy——ashortessayfirstprintedin1798。115*Thetract，however，suchasitis，islessuponpoliticaleconomyproperthanuponeconomiclegislation；anditschiefconclusionisthatalmostalllegislationisimproper。Hismainprincipleis’Bequiet’theequivalentoftheFrenchphrase，whichsurelyshouldhavebeenexcludedfromsoEnglishatheory。Securityandfreedomareallthatindustryrequires；andindustryshouldsaytogovernmentonlywhatDiogenessaidtoAlexander，’Standoutofmysunshine。’116*
　　Oncemore，however，Benthamwillnotlaydownthe’letalone’principleabsolutely。Hisadherencetotheempiricalmethodistoodecided。Thedoctrine’bequiet，’thoughgenerallytrue，restsuponutility，andmay，therefore，alwaysbequalifiedbyprovingthatinaparticularcasethebalanceofutilityistheotherway。Infact，someofBentham’sfavouriteprojectswouldbecondemnedbyanabsoluteadherentofthedoctrine。ThePanopticon，forexample，thougha’milltogrindrogueshonest’couldbeappliedtoothersthanrogues，andBenthamhopedtomakehismachineryequallyeffectiveinthecaseofpauperism。Asystemofnationaleducationisalsoincludedinhisidealconstitution。
　　Itis，infact，importanttorememberthatthe’individualism’ofBenthamismdoesnotnecessarilycoincidewithanabsoluterestrictionofgovernmentinterference。Thegeneraltendencywasinthatdirection；andinpurelyeconomicalquestions，scarcelyanyexceptionwasadmittedtotherule。Menarethebestjudges，itwassaid，oftheirowninterest；andtheinterferenceofrulersinacommercialtransactionistheinterferenceofpeopleinferiorinknowledgeofthefacts，andwhoseinterestsare’sinister’orinconsistentwiththoseofthepersonsreallyconcerned。Utility，therefore，will，asarule，forbidtheactionofgovernment：but，asutilityisalwaystheultimateprinciple，andtheremaybecasesinwhichitdoesnotcoincidewiththe’letalone’
　　principle，wemustalwaysadmitthepossibilitythatinspecialcasesgovernmentcaninterfereusefully，and，inthatcase，approvetheinterference。
　　Hencewehavetheethicalapplicationofthesetheories。Theindividualistpositionnaturallytendstotaketheformofegoism。Themoralsentiments，whatevertheymaybe，areclearlyanintrinsicpartoftheorganicsocialinstincts。Theyareintimatelyinvolvedinthewholeprocessofsocialevolution。
　　ButthisviewcorrespondspreciselytotheconditionswhichBenthamoverlooks。
　　Theindividualisalreadythere。Themoralandthelegalsanctionsare’external’；
　　somethingimposedbytheactionofothers；correspondingto’coercion，’whetherbyphysicalforceorthedreadofpublicopinion；and，inanycase，anaccretionoraddition，notaprofoundmodificationofhiswholenature。TheUtilitarian’man’thereforeinclinestoconsiderotherpeopleasmerelypartsofthenecessarymachinery。Theirfeelingsarerelevantonlyasinfluencingtheiroutwardconduct。Ifamangivesmeacertain’lot’ofpainorpleasure，itdoesnotmatterwhatmaybehismotives。The’motive’forallconductcorrespondsinallcasestothepainorpleasureaccruingtotheagent。Itistruethathishappinesswillbemoreorlessaffectedbyhisrelationstoothers。Butasconductisruledbyacalculationofthebalanceofpainsorpleasuresdependentuponanycourseofaction，itsimplifiesmattersmaterially，ifeachmanregardshisneighbour’sfeelingssimplyasinstrumental，notintrinsicallyinteresting。Andthusthecoincidencebetweenthatconductwhichmaximisesmyhappinessandthatconductwhichmaximiseshappinessingeneral，mustberegardedasmoreorlessaccidentalorliableinspecialcasestodisappear。
　　IfIammadehappierbyactionwhichmakesothersmiserable，theruleofutilitywillleadtomypreferenceofmyself。
　　HerewehavethequestionwhethertheUtilitariansystembeessentiallyaselfishsystem。Bentham，withhisvaguepsychology，doesnotlaydownthedoctrineabsolutely。Aftergivingthislistofself-regarding’springsofaction，’heproceedstoaddthepleasuresandpainsof’sympathy’and’antipathy’
　　which，hesays，arenotself-regarding。Moreover，aswehaveseen，hehassomedifficultyindenyingthat’benevolence’isanecessarilymoralmotive：
　　itisonlycapableofpromptingtobadconductinsofarasitisinsufficientlyenlightened；anditisclearthatamoralistwhomakesthe’greatesthappinessofthegreatestnumber’hisuniversaltest，hassomereasonforadmittingasanelementarypleasurethedesireforthegreatesthappiness。ThiscomesoutcuriouslyintheConstitutionalCode。Hetherelaysdownthe’self-preferenceprinciple’——theprinciple，namely，that’everyhumanbeing’isdeterminedineveryactionbyhisjudgmentofwhatwillproducethegreatesthappinesstohimself，’whatsoeverbetheeffect……inrelationtothehappinessofothersimilarbeings，anyorallofthemtakentogether。’117*Afterwards，however，heobservesthatitis’theconstantandarduoustaskoreverymoralist’
　　andofeverylegislatorwhodeservesthenameto’increasetheinfluenceofsympathyattheexpenseofthatofself-regardandofsympathyforthegreaternumberattheexpenseofsympathyforthelessernumber。’118*Hetriestoreconciletheseviewsbytheremark’thatevensympathyhasitsrootinself-regard，’andheargues，asMrHerbertSpencerhasdonemorefully，thatifAdamcaredonlyforEveandEveonlyforAdam——neithercaringatallforhimselforherself——bothwouldperishinlessthanayear。Self-regard，thatis，isessential，andsympathysupposesitsexistence。HenceBenthamputshimselfthroughacatechism。119*Whatisthe’best’government?Thatwhichcausesthegreatesthappinessofthegivencommunity。Whatcommunity?
　　’Anycommunity，whichisasmuchastosay，everycommunity。’Butwhydoyoudesirethishappiness?Becausetheestablishmentofthathappinesswouldcontributetomygreatesthappiness。Andhowdoyouprovethatyoudesirethisresult?Bymylabourstoobtainit，repliesBentham。Thisoddlyomitsthemoreobviousquestion，howcanyoubesurethatyourhappinesswillbepromotedbythegreatesthappinessofall?Whatifthetwocriteriadiffer?
　　Idesirethegeneralhappiness，hemighthavereplied，becausemybenevolenceisanoriginalorelementaryinstinctwhichcanoverridemyself-love；orIdesireit，hewouldperhapshavesaid，becauseIknowasafactthatthehappinessofotherswillincidentallycontributetomyown。Thefirstanswerwouldfallinwithsomeofhisstatements；butthesecondis，asIthinkmustbeadmitted，moreinharmonywithhissystem。Perhaps，indeed，themostcharacteristicthingisBentham’sfailuretodiscussexplicitlythequestionwhetherhumanactionisorisnotnecessarily’selfish。’Hetellsusinregardtothe’springsofaction’thatallhumanactionisalways’interested，’
　　butexplainsthatthewordproperlyincludesactionsinwhichthemotiveisnot’self-regarding。’120*Itmerelymeans，infact，thatallconducthasmotives。ThestatementwhichIhavequotedaboutthe’self-preference’