andJohnson’sloveofhisuniversityisanequivocaltestimonytoitsintellectualmerits。Wegenerallythinkofitasofasleepyhollow，inwhichportlyfellowsofcolleges，liketheconvivialWarton，imbibedportwineandsneeredatMethodists，thoughfewindeedrivalledWarton’sservicestoliterature。Theuniversitiesinfacthadbecome，astheylongcontinuedtobe，highschoolschieflyfortheuseoftheclergy，andiftheystillaimedatsomewiderintellectualtraining，weresinkingtobeinstitutionswherethepupilsofthepublicschoolsmight，iftheypleased，putalittleextrapolishupontheirclassicalandmathematicalknowledge。Thecollegespreservedtheirmediaevalconstitution；andnoseriouschangesoftheirstatutesweremadeuntilthemiddleofthepresentcentury。Theclergyhadanalmostexclusivepartinthemanagement，anddissenterswereexcludedevenfromenteringOxfordasstudents。21*Buttheclergymandidnotasaruledevotehimselftoalifeofstudy。Hecouldnotmarryasafellow，buthemadenovowsofcelibacy。
　　Thecollege，therefore，wasmerelyastepping-stoneonthewaytotheusualcourseofpreferment。Afellowlookedforwardstosettlinginacollegeliving，orifhehadthelucktoactastutortoanobleman，hemightsoartoadeaneryorabishopric。Thefellowswhostayedintheircollegeswereprobablythosewhohadleastambition，orwhohadatasteforaneasybachelor’slife。Theuniversities，therefore，didnotformbodiesoflearnedmeninterestedinintellectualpursuits；butatmost，helpedsuchmenintheirstartuponamoreprosperouscareer。Thestudiesflaggedinsympathy。Gray’sletterssufficientlyrevealthedulnesswhichwasfeltbyamanofcultivationconfinedwithinthenarrowsocietyofcollegedonsoftheday。Thescholasticphilosophywhichhadoncefoundenthusiasticcultivatorsinthegreatuniversitieshadmoreorlesshelditsownthroughtheseventeenthcentury，thoughrepudiatedbyalltherisingthinkers。SincethedaysofLockeandBerkeley，ithadfallenutterlyoutofcredit。Thebrightcommonsenseofthepolishedsocietyofthedaylookedupontheolddoctrinewithacontempt，which，ifnotjustifiedbyfamiliarity，wasanimplicitjudgmentofthetreebyitsfruits。Nobodycouldsupposethedivinesofthedaytobethedepositariesofanesotericwisdomwhichthevulgarwerenotworthytocriticise。Theywerethemselveschieflyanxioustoprovethattheirsacredmysterieswerereallynotatallmysterious，butmerelyonewayofexpressingplaincommonsense。AtOxford，indeed，theladswerestillcrammedwithAldrich，andlearnedthetechnicaltermsofaphilosophywhichhadceasedtohaveanyreallifeinit。AtCambridge，ardentyoungradicalsspokewithcontemptofthis’horridjargon——fitonlytobechatteredbymonkiesinawilderness。’22*EvenatCambridge，theystillhaddisputationsOntheoldform，buttheyarguedthesesfromLocke’sessay，andthoughtthattheirmathematicalstudieswereacheckuponmetaphysical’jargon。’ItisindeedcharacteristicoftherespectfortraditionthatatCambridgeevenmathematicslongsufferedfromamistakenpatriotismwhichresentedanyimprovementuponthemethodsofNewton。Thereweresomesignsofrevivingactivity。Thefellowshipswerebeingdistributedwithlessregardtoprivateinterest。ThemathematicaltriposfoundedatCambridgeinthemiddleofthecenturybecametheprototypeofallcompetitiveexaminations；
　　andhalfacenturylaterOxfordfollowedtheprecedentbytheExaminationStatuteof1800。Acertainnumberofprofessorshipsofsuchmodernstudiesasanatomy，history，botany，andgeologywerefoundedduringtheeighteenthcentury，andshowacertainsenseofaneedofbroaderviews。ThelecturesuponwhichBlackstonefoundedhiscommentariesweretheproductofthefoundationoftheVinerianprofessorshipin1751；andthemostrecentoftheCambridgecolleges，DowningCollege，showsbyitsconstitutionthataprofessoriatewasnowconsideredtobedesirable。Cambridgeinthelastyearsofthecenturymighthavehadabodyofveryeminentprofessors。Watson，secondwranglerof1759，haddeliveredlecturesuponchemistry，ofwhichitwassaidbyDavythathardlyanyconceivablechangeinthesciencecouldmakethemobsolete。23*
　　Paley，seniorwranglerin1763，wasanalmostunrivalledmasteroflucidexposition，andoneofhisworksisstillatextbookatCambridge。IsaacMilner，seniorwranglerin1774，afterwardsheldtheprofessorshipsofmathematicsandnaturalphilosophy，andwasfamousasasortofecclesiasticalDrJohnson。
　　GilbertWakefield，secondwranglerin1776，publishedaneditionofLucretius，andwasamanofgreatabilityandenergy。HerbertMarsh，secondwranglerin1779，wasdivinityprofessorfrom18O7，andwasthefirstEnglishwritertointroducesomeknowledgeoftheearlystagesofGermancriticism。Porson，thegreatestGreekscholarofhistime，becameprofessorin1790；Malthus，ninthwranglerin1788，whowastomakeapermanentmarkuponpoliticaleconomy，becamefellowofJesusCollegein1793。Waring，seniorwranglerin1757，Vince，seniorwranglerin1775，andWollaston，seniorwranglerin1783，werealsoprofessorsandmathematiciansofreputation。Towardstheendofthecenturytenprofessorswerelecturing。24*Alargenumberwerenotlecturing，thoughMilnerwasgoodenoughtobe’accessibletostudents。’PaleyandWatsonhadbeenledoffintothepathofecclesiasticalpreferment。Marshtoobecameabishopin1816。TherewasnoplaceforsuchtalentsasthoseofMalthus，whoultimatelybecameprofessoratHaileybury。Wakefieldhadthemisfortuneofnotbeingabletocoverhisheterodoxywiththeconventionalformula。
　　Porsonsufferedfromthesamecause，andfromlessrespectableweaknesses；
　　butitseemsthattheuniversityhadnodemandforservicesofthegreatscholar，andhedidnothingforhis£；40ayear。MilnerwasoccupiedinmanagingtheuniversityintheinterestsofPittandProtestantism，andinwagingwaragainstJacobinsandintruders。Therewasnolackofability；
　　buttherewasnoinducementtoanyintellectualactivityforitsownsake；
　　andtherewereabundanttemptationsforanymanofenergytodivergetothecareerwhichofferedmoreintelligiblerewards。
　　Theuniversitiesinfactsuppliedthedemandwhichwasactuallyoperative。
　　Theyprovidedtheaverageclergymanwithadegree；theyexpectedthesonofthecountry-gentlemanorsuccessfullawyertoacquirethetraditionalcultureofhisclass，andtospendthreeorfouryearspleasantly，oreven，ifhechose，industriously。Buttherewasnosuchthingasalearnedsociety，interestedinthecultivationofknowledgeforitsownsake，andapplaudingthedevotionoflifetoitsextensionordiscussion。Themenofthetimewhocontributedtotheprogressofscienceowedlittleornothingtotheuniversities，andwererathervolunteersfromwithout，impelledbytheirownidiosyncrasies。Amongthescientificleaders，forexample，JosephBlack1728-1799wasaScottishprofessor。Priestley1733-1804adissentingminister；Cavendish1731-1810anaristocraticrecluse，who，thoughhestudiedatCambridge，nevergraduated；Watt1736-1819apracticalmechanician；
　　andDalton1766-1844aQuakerschoolmaster。JohnHunter1728-1793wasoneoftheenergeticScotswhoforcedtheirwaytofamewithouthelpfromEnglishuniversities。Thecultivationofthenaturalscienceswasonlybeginningtotakeroot；andthesoil，whichitfoundcongenial，wasnotthatofthegreatlearnedinstitutions，whichheldtotheiroldtraditionalstudies。
　　Imay，then，sumuptheresultinafewwords。Thechurchhadonceclaimedtobeanentirelyindependentbody，possessingasupernaturalauthority，withanorganisationsanctionedbysupernaturalpowers，andentitledtolaydownthedoctrineswhichgavethefinaltheoryoflife。Theologywasthequeenofthesciencesandtheologianstheinterpretersofthefirstprinciplesofallknowledgeandconduct。ThechurchofEngland，ontheotherhand，atourperiodhadentirelyceasedtobeindependent：itwasboundhandandfootbyactsofparliament：therewasnoecclesiasticalorgancapableofshakinginitsname，alteringitslawsordefiningitstenets：itwasanaggregateofofficestheappointmenttowhichwasinthehandseitherofthepoliticalministersorofthelaymembersoftherulingclass。Itwasinrealitysimplyapartoftherulingclasstoldofftoperformdivineservices：tomaintainorderandrespectabilityandthetraditionalmorality。Ithadnodistinctivephilosophyortheology，forthearticlesofbeliefrepresentedsimplyacompromise；
　　anattempttoretainasmuchoftheoldaswaspracticableandyettoadmitasmuchofthenewaswasmadedesirablebypoliticalconsiderations。Itwastheboastofitsmoreliberalmembersthattheywerenottieddowntoanydefinitedogmaticsystem；butcouldhaveafreehandsolongastheydidnotwantonlycomeintoconflictwithsomeofthelegalformulaelaiddowninapreviousgeneration。Theactualteachingshowedtheeffectsofthesystem。Ithadbeeneasytointroduceaconsiderableleavenoftherationalismwhichsuitedthelaymind；toexplainawaythemysteriousdoctrinesuponwhichanindependentchurchhadinsistedasmanifestationsofitsspiritualprivileges，butwhichwereregardedwithindifferenceorcontemptbytheeducatedlaitynowbecomeindependent。Thepriesthadbeendisarmedandhadtosuithisteachingtothetasteofhispatronsandcongregations。Thedivinesoftheeighteenthcenturyhad，astheyboasted，confutedthedeists；butitwasmainlybyshowingthattheycouldbedeistsinallbutthename。Thedissenters，lesshamperedbylegalformulae，haddriftedtowardsUnitarianism。
　　ThepositionofsuchdivinesasPaley，Watson，andHeywasnotsomuchthattheUnitarianswerewrong，asthatthemysteriousdoctrinesweremeresetsofwords，overwhichitwassuperfluoustoquarrel。Thedoctrinewasessentiallytraditional；foritwasimpossibletorepresentthedoctrinesofthechurchofEnglandasdeductionsfromanyabstractphilosophy。Butthetraditionswerenotregardedashavinganymysteriousauthority。Abstractphilosophymightleadtodeismorinfidelity。PaleyandhislikerejectedsuchphilosophyinthespiritofLockeorevenHume。Butitwasalwayspossibletotreatatraditionlikeanyotherstatementoffact。Itcouldbeprovedbyappropriateevidence。ThetruthofChristianitywasthereforemerelyaquestionoffactslikethetruthofanyotherpassagesofhistory。ItwaseasyenoughtomakeoutacasefortheChristianmiracles，andthenthemysteries，afterithadbeensufficientlyexplainedthattheyreallymeantnexttonothing，couldberestedupontheauthorityofthemiracles。Inotherwords，theaccepteddoctrines，likethewholeconstitutionofthechurch，couldbesomodifiedastosuittheprejudicesandmodesofthoughtofthelaity。Thechurch，itmaybesaid，wasthoroughlysecularised。Thepriestwasnolongerawielderofthreatsandaninterpreteroforacles，butanentirelyrespectablegentleman，whofullysympathisedwiththeprejudicesofhispatronandpracticallyadmittedthathehadverylittletoreveal，beyondexplainingthathisdogmaswereperfectlyharmlessandeminentlyconvenient。Hepreached，however，asoundcommon-sensemorality，andwasnotdividedfromhisneighboursbysettinguptheclaimscharacteristicofasacerdotalcaste。WhetherhehasbecomeOnthewholebetterorworsebysubsequentchangesisaquestionnottobeaskedhere；butperhapsnotquitesoeasilyansweredasissometimessupposed。
　　TheconditionoftheEnglishchurchanduniversitiesmaybecontrastedwiththatoftheirScottishrivals。TheScottishchurchanduniversitieshadnogreatprizestoofferandnoelaboratehierarchy。ButthechurchwasanationalinstitutioninasensedifferentfromtheEnglish。TheGeneralAssemblywasapowerfulbody，notovershadowedbyagreatpoliticalrival。
　　TorisetobeaministerwasthegreatambitionofpoorsOnsoffarmersandtradesmen。Theyhadtostudyattheuniversitiesintheintervals，perhaps，ofagriculturallabour；andifthelearningwasslightandthescholarshipbelowtheEnglishstandard，theyoungaspiranthadatleasttolearntopreachandtoacquiresuchphilosophyaswouldenablehimtoargueupongraceandfreewillwithsomehard-headedDavieDeans。ItWasdoubtlessowinginparttotheseconditionsthattheScottishuniversitiesproducedmanydistinguishedteachersthroughoutthecentury。Professorshadtoteachsomethingwhichmightatleastpassforphilosophy，thoughtheyweremoreorlessrestrainedbythenecessityofrespectingorthodoxprejudices。Attheendofthecentury，theonlyschoolsofphilosophyintheislandweretobefoundinScotland，whereReid1710-1796andAdamSmith1723-1790hadfoundintelligentdisciples，andwhereDugaldStewart，ofwhomIshallspeakpresently，hadbecometherecognisedphilosophicalauthority，VII。THEORY
　　Whattheorycorrespondstothispracticalorder?Itimplies，inthefirstplace，aconstantreferencetotradition。Thesystemhasgrownupwithoutanyreferencetoabstractprinciplesorsymmetricalplan。Thelegalordersupposesatraditionalcommonlaw，astheecclesiasticalorderatraditionalcreed，andtheorganisationisexplicableonlybyhistoricalcauses。Thesystemrepresentsaseriesofcompromises，nottheelaborationofatheory。
　　Ifthesquireundertookbywayofsupererogationtojustifyhispositionheappealedtotraditionandexperience。Heinvokedthe’wisdomofourancestors，’
　　thesystemof’checksandbalances’whichmadeourConstitutionanunrivalledmixtureofmonarchy，aristocracy，anddemocracydeservingthe’dreadandenvyoftheworld。’Theprescriptionforcompoundingthatmixturecouldobviouslybelearnedbynothingbutexperiment。Traditionalmeansempirical。Byinstinct，ratherthanconsciousreasoning，Englishmenhadfelttheirwaytoestablishingthe’palladiaofourliberties’：trialbyjury，the’HabeasCorpus’Act，andthesubstitutionofamilitiaforastandingarmy。Theinstitutionswerecherishedbecausetheyhadbeendevelopedbylongstrugglesandwereoftencherishedwhentheirrealjustificationhaddisappeared。TheConstitutionhadnotbeen’made’buthad’grown’；or，inotherwords，theonerulehadbeentheruleofthumb。Thatisanexcellentruleinitsway，andverysuperiortoanabstractrulewhichneglectsoroverridesexperience。The’logicoffacts，’moreover，maybetrustedtoproduceacertainharmony：andgeneralprinciples，thoughnotconsciouslyinvoked，tacitlygovernthedevelopmentofinstitutionsworkedoutunderuniformconditions。Thesimplereluctancetopaymoneywithoutgettingmoney’sworthmightgeneratetheimportantprinciplethatrepresentationshouldgowithtaxation，withoutembodyinganytheoryofa’socialcontract’suchaswasofferedbyanafterthoughttogiveaphilosophicalsanction。Englishmen，itissaid，hadboughttheirlibertiesstepbystep，becauseateachsteptheywereinapositiontobargainwiththeirrulers。
　　Whattheyhadboughttheyweredeterminedtokeepandconsideredtobetheirinalienableproperty。Oneresultisconspicuous。InEnglandtherulingclassesdidnotsomuchconsidertheirprivilegestobesomethinggrantedbythestate，asthepowerofthestatetobesomethingderivedfromtheirconcessions。