OurforeignpolicyduringthecenturyWasinthelongrunchieflydeterminedbytheinterestsofourtrade，howevermuchthetrademightattimesbehamperedbyill-conceivedregulations。ItisremarkablethatAdamSmith3*arguesthat，althoughthecapitalistisacuterthatthecountry-gentleman，hisacutenessischieflydisplayedbyknowinghisowninterestsbetter。Thoseinterests，hethinks，donotcoincidesomuchastheinterestsofthecountry-gentlemanwiththegeneralinterestsofthecountry。Consequentlythecountry-gentleman，thoughlessintelligent，ismorelikelytofavouranationalandliberalpolicy。Themerchant，infact，wasnotafree-traderbecausehehadreadAdamSmithorconsciouslyadoptedSmith’sprinciples，butbecauseorinsofarasparticularrestrictionsinterferedwithhim。ArthurYoungcomplainsbitterlyofthemanufacturerswhosupportedtheprohibitiontoexportEnglishwool，andsoprotectedtheirownclassattheexpenseofagriculturists。
　　Wedgwood，thoughagoodliberalandasupporterofPitt’sFrenchtreatyin1786，joinedinprotestingagainsttheproposalforfree-tradewithIreland。
　　TheIrish，hethought，mightrivalhispotteries。Thus，thoughasamatteroffactthegrowingclassofmanufacturersandmerchantswereinclinedinthemaintoliberalprinciples，itwaslessfromadhesiontoanygeneraldoctrinethanfromthefactthattheexistingrestrictionsandprejudicesgenerallyconflictedwiththeirplaininterests。
　　Anothercharacteristicisremarkable。Thoughthegrowthofmanufacturesandcommercemeantthegrowthofgreattowns，itdidnotmeanthegrowthofmunicipalinstitutions。Onthecontrary，asIshallpresentlyhavetonotice，themunicipalitiesweresinkingtotheirlowestebb。Manufactures，inthefirstinstance，spreadalongthestreamsintocountrydistricts：andtothegreatmanufacturer，workingforhisownhand，hisneighbourswerecompetitorsasmuchasallies。Thegreattowns，however，whichweregrowingup，showedthegeneraltendenciesoftheclass。Theywerecentresnotonlyofmanufacturingbutofintellectualprogress。ThepopulationofBirmingham，containingthefamousSohoworksofBoultonandWatt，hadincreasedbetween1740and1780from24，000to74，000inhabitants。Watt’spartnerBoultonstartedthe’LunarSociety’atBirmingham。4*ItsmostprominentmemberwasErasmusDarwin，famousthenforpoetrywhichischieflyrememberedbytheparodyintheAnti-Jacobin；andnowmorefamousastheadvocateofatheoryofevolutioneclipsedbytheteachingofhismorefamousgrandson，and，inanycase，amanofremarkableintellectualpower。AmongthosewhojoinedintheproceedingswasEdgeworth，whoin1768wasspeculatinguponmovingcarriagesbysteam，andThomasDay，whoseSandfordandMertonhelpedtospreadinEnglandtheeducationaltheoriesofRousseau。Priestley，whosettledatBirminghamin1780，becameamember，andwashelpedinhisinvestigationsbyWatt’scounselsandWedgwood’specuniaryhelp。AmongoccasionalvisitorswereSmeaton，SirJosephBanks，Solander，andHerschelofscientificcelebrity；whiletheliterarymagnate，DrParr，wholivedbetweenWarwickandBirmingham，occasionallyjoinedthecircle。Wedgwood，thoughtoofarofftobeamember，wasintimatewithDarwinandassociatedinvariousenterpriseswithBoulton。Wedgwood’scongenialpartner，ThomasBentley1731-1780，hadbeeninbusinessatManchesterandatLiverpool。HehadtakenpartinfoundingtheWarrington’Academy，’
　　thedissentingseminaryafterwardsmovedtoManchesterofwhichPriestleywastutor1761-1767，andhadlectureduponartattheacademyfoundedatLiverpoolin1773。AnothermemberoftheacademywasWilliamRoscoe1753-1831，whoseliterarytastewasshownbyhislivesofLorenzodeMediciandLeoX，andwhodistinguishedhimselfbyopposingtheslavetrade，thentheinfamyofhisnativetown。AlliedwithhiminthismovementwereWilliamRathboneandJamesCurrie1756-1805thebiographerofBurns，afriendofDarwinandanintelligentphysician。AtManchesterThomasPerceval1740-1804foundedthe’LiteraryandPhilosophicalSociety，in1780。HewasapupiloftheWarringtonAcademy，whichheafterwardsjoinedonremovingtoManchester，andheformedtheschemeafterwardsrealisedbyOwensCollege。Hewasanearlyadvocateofsanitarymeasuresandfactorylegislation，andamanofscientificreputation。
　　Othermembersofthesocietywere：JohnFerriar1761-1815，bestknownbyhisIllustrationsofSterne，butalsoamanofliteraryandscientificreputation；
　　thegreatchemist，JohnDalton1766-1844，whocontributedmanypaperstoitstransactions；and，forashorttime，theSocialistRobertOwen，thenarisingmanufacturer。AtNorwich，thenimportantasamanufacturingcentre，wasasimilarcircle。WilliamTaylor，aneminentUnitariandivine，whodiedattheWarringtonAcademyin1761，hadlivedatNorwich。OneofhisdaughtersmarriedDavidMartineauandbecamethemotherofHarrietMartineau，whohasdescribedtheNorwichofherearlyyears。JohnTaylor，grandsonofWilliam，wasfatherofMrsAustin，wifeofthejurist。Hewasamanofliterarytastes，andhiswifewasknownastheMadameRolandofNorwich。MrsOpie1765-1853
　　wasdaughterofJamesAlderson，aphysicianofNorwich，andpassedmostofherlifethere。WilliamTaylor1761-1836，anotherNorwichmanufacturer，wasamongtheearliestEnglishstudentsofGermanliterature。Norwichhadafterwardstheuniquedistinctionofbeingthehomeofaprovincialschoolofartists。JohnCrome1788-1821，sonofapoorweaver，andJohnSellCotman1782-1842wereitsleaders；theyformedakindofprovincialacademy，andexhibitedpictureswhichhavebeenmoreappreciatedsincetheirdeath。AtBristol，towardstheendofthecentury，weresimilarindicationsofintellectualactivity。ColeridgeandSoutheyfoundthereasocietyreadytolistentotheirearlylectures，andbothadmiredThomasBeddoes1760-1808，aphysician，achemist，astudentofGerman，animitatorofDarwininpoetry，andanassailantofPittinpamphlets。HehadmarriedoneofEdgeworth’sdaughters。WiththehelpandadviceofWedgwoodandWatt，hefoundedthe’PneumaticInstitute’
　　atCliftonin1798，andobtainedthehelpofHumphryDavy，whotheremadesomeofhisfirstdiscoveries。DavywassoontransportedtotheRoyalInstitution，foundedatthesuggestionofCountRumfordin1799，whichrepresentedthegrowthofapopularinterestinthescientificdiscoveries。
　　Thegeneraltoneoftheselittlesocietiesrepresents，ofcourse，thetendencyoftheupperstratumoftheindustrialclasses。Intheirowneyestheynaturallyrepresentedtheprogressiveelementofsociety。TheywereWhigs——for’radicalism’wasnotyetinvented——butWhigsoftheleftwing；
　　acceptingthearistocraticprecedency，butlookingaskanceatthearistocraticprejudices。Theywererationalists，too，inprinciple，butagainwithinlimits：
　　openlyavowingthedoctrineswhichintheEstablishedchurchhadstilltobeshelteredbyostensibleconformitytothetraditionaldogmas。ManyofthemprofessedtheUnitarianismtowhichtheolddissentingbodiesinclined。
　　’Unitarianism，’saidshrewdoldErasmusDarwin，’isafeather-bedforadyingChristian。’ButatpresentsuchmenasPriestleyandPricewereonlysofarontheroadtoathoroughrationalismastodenouncethecorruptionsofChristianity，astheydenouncedabusesinpolitics，withoutanticipatingarevolutionarychangeinchurchandstate。Priestley，forexample，combined’materialism’
　　and’determinism’withChristianityandabeliefinmiracles，andcontrovertedHorsleyupononesideandPaineontheother。
　　II。THEAGRICULTURISTS
　　Thegeneralspiritrepresentedbysuchmovementswasbynomeansconfinedtothecommercialormanufacturingclasses；anditsmostcharacteristicembodimentistobefoundinthewritingsofaleadingagriculturist。
　　ArthurYoung，5*bornin1741，wasthesonofaclergyman，whohadalsoasmallancestralpropertyatBradfield，nearBurySt。Edmunds。Accidentsledtohisbecomingafarmeratanearlyage。Heshowedmorezealthandiscretion，andaftertryingthreethousandexperimentsonhisfarm，hewasgladtopay£；100toanothertenanttotakehisfarmoffhishands。Thisexperienceasapracticalagriculturist，farfromdiscouraginghim，qualifiedhiminhisownopiniontospeakwithauthority，andhebecameadevotedmissionaryofthegospelofagriculturalimprovement。Theenthusiasmwithwhichheadmiredmoresuccessfullabourersinthecause，andtheindignationwithwhichheregardsthesluggishandretrograde，arecharming。Hiskindliness，hiskeeninterestintheprosperityofallmen，richorpoor，hisardentbeliefinprogress，combinedwithhisquicknessofobservation，giveacharmtothewritingswhichembodyhisexperience。ToursinEnglandandatemporaryland-agencyinIrelandsuppliedhimwithmaterialsforbookswhichmadehimknownbothinEnglandandontheContinent。In1779hereturnedtoBradfield，wherehesoonafterwardscameintopossessionofhispaternalestate，whichbecamehispermanenthome。In1784hetriedtoextendhispropagandabybringingouttheAnnalsofAgriculture——amonthlypublication，ofwhichforty-fivehalf-yearlyvolumesappeared。Hehadmanyablecontributorsandhimselfwrotemanyinterestingarticles，butthepecuniaryresultsweremainlynegative。
　　In1791hiscirculationwasonly350copies。6*MeanwhilehisacquaintancewiththeducdeLiancourtledtotoursinFrancefrom1788to1790。HisTravelsinFrance，firstpublishedin1792，hasbecomeaclassic。In1793YoungwasmadesecretarytotheBoardofAgriculture，ofwhichIshallspeakpresently。
　　HebecameknowninLondonsocietyaswellasinagriculturalcircles。Hewasahandsomeandattractiveman，acharmingcompanion，andwidelyrecognisedasanagriculturalauthority。TheempressofRussiasenthimasnuff-box；
　　’FarmerGeorge’presentedamerinoram；hewaselectedmemberoflearnedsocieties；hevisitedBurkeatBeaconsfield，PittatHolmwood，andwasafriendofWilberforceandofJeremyBentham。
　　Younghadmanydomestictroubles。Hismarriagewasnotcongenial；thelossofatenderlyloveddaughterin1797permanentlysaddenedhim；hebecameblind，andinhislateryearssoughtcomfortinreligiousmeditationandinpreachingtohispoorerneighbours。Hedied20thApril1820。Heleftbehindhimagigantichistoryofagriculture，fillingtenfoliovolumesofmanuscript，which，thoughreducedtosixbyanenthusiasticdiscipleafterhisdeath，haveneverfoundtheirwaytopublication。
　　TheTravelsinFrance，Young’sbestbook，owesonemerittotheadviceofajudiciousfriend，whoremarkedthattheprevioustourshadsufferedfromtheabsenceofthepersonaldetailswhichinterestthecommonreader。
　　TheinsertionofthesemakesYoung’saccountofhisFrenchtoursoneofthemostcharmingaswellasmostinstructivebooksofthekind。Itgivesthevividimpressionmadeuponakeenandkindlyobserverinalltheirfreshness。
　　Hesensiblyretainedtheexpressionsofopinionmadeatthetime。’Imayremarkatpresent，’hesays，7*’thatalthoughIwastotallymistakeninmyprediction，yet，onarevision，IthinkIwasrightinit。’Itwasright，hemeans，uponthedatathenknowntohim，andheleavestheunfulfilledpredictionasitwas。Thebookisfrequentlycitedinjustificationoftherevolution，anditmaybefairlyurgedthathisauthorityisofthemoreweight，becausehedoesnotstartfromanysympathywithrevolutionaryprinciples。
　　YoungwasinPariswhentheoathwastakenatthetennis-court；andmakeshisreflectionsuponthebeautyoftheBritishConstitution，andthefollyofvisionaryreforms，inaspiritwhichmighthavesatisfiedBurke。Hewasthereforenotaltogetherinconsistentwhen，aftertheoutrages，hecondemnedtherevolution，howevermuchthefactswhichhedescribesmaytendtoexplaintheinevitablenessofthecatastrophe。Atanyrate，hisviewsareworthnoticebytheindicationswhichtheygiveofthementalattituDeofatypicalEnglishobserver。