CHAPTERI
　　FOREWORD
　　Position，andPeriod。
　　ThereligionoftheBabyloniansandAssyrianswasthepolytheisticfaithprofessedbythepeoplesinhabitingtheTigrisandEuphratesvalleysfromwhatmayberegardedasthedawnofhistoryuntiltheChristianerabegan，or，atleast，untiltheinhabitantswerebroughtundertheinfluenceofChristianity。Thechronologicalperiodcoveredmayberoughlyestimatedatabout5000years。Thebeliefofthepeople，attheendofthattime，beingBabylonianheathenismleavenedwithJudaism，thecountrywasprobablyripeforthereceptionofthenewfaith。Christianity，however，bynomeansreplacedtheearlierpolytheism，asisevidencedbythefact，thattheworshipofNeboandthegodsassociatedwithhimcontinueduntilthefourthcenturyoftheChristianera。
　　Bywhomfollowed。
　　Itwasthefaithoftwodistinctpeoples——theSumero—Akkadians，andtheAssyro—Babylonians。Inwhatcountryithaditsbeginningsisunknown——itcomesbeforeus，evenattheearliestperiod，asafaithalreadywell—developed，andfromthatfact，aswellasfromthenamesofthenumerousdeities，itisclearthatitbeganwiththeformerrace——theSumero—Akkadians——whospokeanon—Semiticlanguagelargelyaffectedbyphoneticdecay，andinwhichthegrammaticalformshadincertaincasesbecomeconfusedtosuchanextentthatthosewhostudyitaskthemselveswhetherthepeoplewhospokeitwereabletounderstandeachotherwithoutrecoursetodevicessuchasthe"tones"
　　towhichtheChineseresort。Withfewexceptions，thenamesofthegodswhichtheinscriptionsrevealtousareallderivedfromthisnon—Semiticlanguage，whichfurnishesuswithsatisfactoryetymologiesforsuchnamesasMerodach，Nergal，Sin，andthedivinitiesmentionedinBerosusandDamascius，aswellasthoseofhundredsofdeitiesrevealedtousbythetabletsandslabsofBabyloniaandAssyria。
　　Thedocuments。
　　OutsidetheinscriptionsofBabyloniaandAssyria，thereisbutlittlebearinguponthereligionofthosecountries，themostimportantfragmentbeingtheextractsfromBerosusandDamasciusreferredtoabove。AmongtheBabylonianandAssyrianremains，however，wehaveanextensiveandvaluablemassofmaterial，datingfromthefourthorfifthmillenniumbeforeChristuntilthedisappearanceoftheBabyloniansystemofwritingaboutthebeginningoftheChristianera。
　　Theearlierinscriptionsaremostlyofthenatureofrecords，andgiveinformationaboutthedeitiesandthereligionofthepeopleinthecourseofdescriptionsofthebuildingandrebuildingoftemples，themakingofofferings，theperformanceofceremonies，etc。PurelyreligiousinscriptionsarefoundneartheendofthethirdmillenniumbeforeChrist，andoccurinconsiderablenumbers，eitherintheoriginalSumeriantext，orintranslations，orboth，untilaboutthethirdcenturybeforeChrist。Amongthemorerecentinscriptions——thosefromthelibraryoftheAssyriankingA？？ur—bani—apliandthelaterBabyloniantemplearchives，——therearemanylistsofdeities，withnumerousidentificationswitheachotherandwiththeheavenlybodies，andexplanationsoftheirnatures。ItisneedlesstosaythatallthismaterialisofenormousvalueforthestudyofthereligionoftheBabyloniansandAssyrians，andenablesustoreconstructatfirsthandtheirmythologicalsystem，andnotethechangeswhichtookplaceinthecourseoftheirlongnationalexistence。Manyinterestingandentertaininglegendsillustrateandsupplementtheinformationgivenbythebilinguallistsofgods，thebilingualincantationsandhymns，andthereferencescontainedinthehistoricalandotherdocuments。A
　　trilinguallistofgodsenablesusalsotorecognise，insomecases，thedialecticformsoftheirnames。
　　Theimportanceofthesubject。
　　OfequalantiquitywiththereligionofEgypt，thatofBabyloniaandAssyriapossessessomemarkeddifferencesastoitsdevelopment。
　　Beginningamongthenon—SemiticSumero—Akkadianpopulation，itmaintainedforalongtimeitsuninterrupteddevelopment，affectedmainlybyinfluencesfromwithin，namely，thehomogeneouslocalcultswhichactedandreacteduponeachother。Thereligioussystemsofothernationsdidnotgreatlyaffectthedevelopmentoftheearlynon—SemiticreligioussystemofBabylonia。Atimeatlastcame，however，whentheinfluenceoftheSemiticinhabitantsofBabyloniaandAssyriawasnottobegainsaid，andfromthatmoment，thedevelopmentoftheirreligiontookanotherturn。InallprobablythisaugmentationofSemiticreligiousinfluencewasduetotheincreasednumbersoftheSemiticpopulation，andatthesameperiodtheSumero—
　　AkkadianlanguagebegantogivewaytotheSemiticidiomwhichtheyspoke。WhenatlasttheSemiticBabylonianlanguagecametobeusedforofficialdocuments，wefindthat，althoughthenon—Semiticdivinenamesareinthemainpreserved，acertainnumberofthemhavebeendisplacedbytheSemiticequivalentnames，suchas？ama？forthesun—god，withKittuandMê？aru（"justiceandrighteousness"）hisattendants；Nabú（"theteacher"=Nebo）withhisconsortTa？mêtu（"thehearer"）；Addu，Adad，orDadu，andRammanu，Ramimu，orRagimu=HadadorRimmon（"thethunderer"）；BêlandBêltu（Beltis="thelord"and"thelady"/parexcellence/），withsomeothersofinferiorrank。Inplaceofthechiefdivinityofeachstateattheheadofeachseparatepantheon，thetendencywastomakeMerodach，thegodofthecapitalcityBabylon，theheadofthepantheon，andheseemstohavebeenuniversallyacceptedinBabylonia，likeA？？urinAssyria，about2000
　　B。C。orearlier。
　　Theunitingoftwopantheons。
　　Wethusfindtwopantheons，theSumero—Akkadianwithitsmanygods，andtheSemiticBabylonianwithitscomparativelyfew，united，andformingoneapparentlyhomogeneouswhole。Butthecreedhadtakenafreshtendency。Itwasnolongeraseriesofsmall，andtoacertainextentantagonistic，pantheonscomposedofthechiefgod，hisconsort，attendants，children，andservants，butapantheonofconsiderableextent，containingalltheelementsoftheprimitivebutsmallerpantheons，withanumberofgreatgodswhohadraisedMerodachtobetheirking。
　　InAssyria。
　　WhilstacceptingthereligionofBabylonia，Assyrianeverthelesskeptherselfdistinctfromhersouthernneighbourbyaverysimpledevice，byplacingattheheadofthepantheonthegodA？？ur，whobecameforherthechiefofthegods，andatthesametimetheemblemofherdistinctnationalaspirations——forAssyriahadnointentionwhateverofcastinginherlotwithhersouthernneighbour。Nevertheless，Assyriapossessed，alongwiththelanguageofBabylonia，alltheliteratureofthatcountry——indeed，itisfromthelibrariesofherkingsthatweobtainthebestcopiesoftheBabylonianreligioustexts，treasuredandpreservedbyherwithallthevenerationofwhichherreligiousmindwascapable，——andthereligiousfervouroftheOrientalinmostcasesleavesthatoftheEuropean，oratleastoftheordinaryBriton，farbehind。
　　ThelaterperiodinAssyria。
　　AssyriawenttoherdownfallattheendoftheseventhcenturybeforeChristworshippinghernationalgodA？？ur，whosecultdidnotceasewiththedestructionofhernationalindependence。Infact，thecityofA？？ur，thecentreofthatworship，continuedtoexistforaconsiderableperiod；butforthehistoryofthereligionofAssyria，aspreservedthere，wewaitfortheresultoftheexcavationsbeingcarriedonbytheGermans，shouldtheybefortunateenoughtoobtaintextsbelongingtotheperiodfollowingthefallofNineveh。
　　InBabylonia。
　　Babylonia，ontheotherhand，continuedtheeventenorofherway。
　　Moresuccessfulattheendofherindependentpoliticalcareerthanhernorthernrivalhadbeen，sheretainedherfaith，andremainedtheunswervingworshipperofMerodach，thegreatgodofBabylon，towhomherpriestsattributedyetgreaterpowers，andwithwhomalltheothergodsweretoallappearanceidentified。Thistendencytomonotheism，however，neverreachedtheculminatingpoint——neverbecameabsolute——
　　except，naturally，inthemindsofthosewho，dissociatingthemselves，forphilosophicalreasons，fromthesuperstitiousteachingofthepriestsofBabylonia，decidedforthemselvesthattherewasbutoneGod，andworshippedHim。ThatorthodoxJewsatthatperiodmayhavefound，inconsequenceofthismonotheistictendency，converts，isnotbyanymeansimprobable——indeed，thenamesmetwithduringthelaterperiodimplythatconvertstoJudaismweremade。
　　Thepicturepresentedbythestudy。
　　Thuswesee，fromthevariousinscriptions，bothBabylonianandAssyrian——theformerofanextremelyearlyperiod——thegrowthanddevelopment，withatleastonebranchingoff，ofoneofthemostimportantreligioussystemsoftheancientworld。ItisnotsoimportantformodernreligionasthedevelopmentofthebeliefsoftheHebrews，butasthecreedofthepeoplefromwhichtheHebrewnationsprang，andfromwhich，therefore，ithaditsbeginnings，bothcorporealandspiritual，itissuchasnostudentofmodernreligioussystemscanaffordtoneglect。Itslegends，andthereforeitsteachings，aswillbeseeninthesepages，ultimatelypermeatedtheSemiticWest，andmayinsomecasesevenhadpenetratedEurope，notonlythroughheathenGreece，butalsothroughtheearlyChristians，who，beingsomanycenturiesnearerthetimeoftheAssyro—Babylonians，andalsonearertheterritorywhichtheyancientlyoccupied，thanweare，werefarbetteracquaintedthanthepeopleofthepresentdaywiththelegendsandideaswhichtheypossessed。
　　CHAPTERII
　　THERELIGIONOFTHEBABYLONIANSANDASSYRIANS
　　TheSumero—AkkadiansandtheSemites。
　　ForthehistoryofthedevelopmentofthereligionoftheBabyloniansandAssyriansmuchnaturallydependsuponthecompositionofthepopulationofearlyBabylonia。ThereishardlyanydoubtthattheSumero—Akkadianswerenon—Semitesofafairlypurerace，butthecountryoftheiroriginisstillunknown，thoughacertainrelationshipwiththeMongolianandTurkishnationalities，probablyreachingbackmanycenturies——perhapsthousandsofyears——beforetheearliestaccepteddate，mayberegardedasequallylikely。EquallyuncertainisthedateoftheentryoftheSemites，whoselanguageultimatelydisplacedthenon—SemiticSumero—Akkadianidioms，andwhosekingsfinallyruledovertheland。DuringthethirdmillenniumbeforeChristSemites，bearingSemiticnames，andcalledAmorites，appear，andprobablyformedthelastconsiderablestratumoftribesofthatracewhichenteredtheland。ThenameMartu，theSumero—AkkadianequivalentofAmurru，"Amorite"，isoffrequentoccurrencealsobeforethisperiod。TheeasternMediterraneancoastdistrict，includingPalestineandtheneighbouringtracts，wasknownbytheBabyloniansandAssyriansasthelandoftheAmorites，atermwhichstoodfortheWestingeneralevenwhentheseregionsnolongerborethatname。TheBabyloniansmaintainedtheirclaimtosovereigntyoverthatpartaslongastheypossessedthepowertodoso，andnaturallyexercisedconsiderableinfluencethere。TheexistenceinPalestine，Syria，andtheneighbouringstates，ofcreedscontainingthenamesofmanyBabyloniandivinitiesisthereforenottobewonderedat，andthepresenceofWestSemiticdivinitiesinthereligionoftheBabyloniansneednotcauseusanysurprise。
　　TheBabylonianscriptanditsevidence。
　　Inconsequenceofthedeterminativeprefixforagodoragoddessbeing，intheoldestform，apictureofaneight—rayedstar，ithasbeenassumedthatAssyro—Babylonianmythologyis，eitherwhollyorpartly，astralinorigin。This，however，isbynomeanscertain，thecharacterfor"star"intheinscriptionsbeingacombinationofthreesuchpictures，andnotasinglesign。Theprobabilitythereforeis，thattheuseofthesinglestartoindicatethenameofadivinityarisesmerelyfromthefactthatthecharacterinquestionstandsfor/ana/，"heaven。"DeitieswereevidentlythusdistinguishedbytheBabyloniansbecausetheyregardedthemasinhabitantsoftherealmsabove——indeed，theheavensbeingtheplacewherethestarsareseen，apictureofastarwastheonlywayofindicatingheavenlythings。ThatthegodsoftheBabylonianswereinmanycasesidentifiedwiththestarsandplanetsiscertain，buttheseidentificationsseemtohavetakenplaceatacomparativelylatedate。Anexceptionhasnaturallytobemadeinthecaseofthesunandmoon，butthegodMerodach，ifhebe，asseemscertain，adeifiedBabylonianking，musthavebeenidentifiedwiththestarswhichbearhisnameafterhisworshippersbegantopayhimdivinehonoursasthesupremedeity，andnaturallywhatistrueforhimmayalsobesofortheothergodswhomtheyworshipped。Theidentificationofsomeofthedeitieswithstarsorplanetsis，moreover，impossible，andifêa，thegodofthedeep，andAnu，thegodoftheheavens，havetheirrepresentativesamongtheheavenlybodies，thisisprobablytheresultoflaterdevelopment。[*]
　　[*]IftherebeanyhistoricalfoundationforthestatementthatMerodacharrangedthesun，themoon，theplanets，andthestars，assigningtothemtheirproperplacesandduties——atraditionwhichwouldmakehimthefounderofthescienceofastronomyduringhislifeuponearth——this，too，wouldtendtotheprobabilitythattheoriginofthegodsoftheBabylonianswasnotastral，ashasbeensuggested，butthattheiridentificationwiththeheavenlybodieswasintroducedduringtheperiodofhisreign。
　　Ancestorandhero—worship。Thedeificationofkings。
　　Thoughthereisnoproofthatancestor—worshipingeneralprevailedatanytimeinBabylonia，itwouldseemthattheworshipofheroesandprominentmenwascommon，atleastinearlytimes。ThetenthchapterofGenesistellsusofthestoryofNimrod，whocannotbeanyotherthantheMerodachoftheAssyro—Babylonianinscriptions；andotherexamples，occurringinsemi—mythologicaltimes，are/En—we—dur—an—ki/，theGreekEdoreschos，and/Gilgame？/，theGreekGilgamos，thoughAelian’sstoryofthelatterdoesnotfitinwiththeaccountasgivenbytheinscriptions。Inlatertimes，thedivineprefixisfoundbeforethenamesofmanyaBabylonianruler——SargonofAgadé，[*]DungiofUr（about2500B。C。），Rim—SinorEri—Aku（AriochofEllasar，about2100
　　B。C。），andothers。Itwasdoubtlessakindofflatterytodeifyandpaytheserulersdivinehonoursduringtheirlifetime，andonaccountofthis，itisveryprobablethattheirgodhoodwasutterlyforgotten，inthecaseofthosewhowerestrictlyhistorical，aftertheirdeath。
　　ThedeificationofthekingsofBabyloniaandAssyriaisprobablyduetothefact，thattheywereregardedastherepresentativesofGoduponearth，andbeinghischiefpriestsaswellashisoffspring（thepersonalnamesshowthatitwasacommonthingtoregardchildrenasthegiftsofthegodswhomtheirfatherworshipped），thedivinefatherhoodthusattributedtothemnaturallycould，inthecaseofthoseofroyalrank，givethemarealclaimtodivinebirthandhonours。AnexceptionisthedeificationoftheBabylonianNoah，Ut—napi？tim，who，asthelegendoftheFloodrelates，wasraisedandmadeoneofthegodsbyAaorEa，forhisfaithfulnessafterthegreatcatastrophe，whenheandhiswifeweretranslatedtothe"remoteplaceatthemouthoftherivers。"TheheroGilgame？，ontheotherhand，washalfdivinebybirth，thoughitisnotexactlyknownthroughwhomhisdivinitycame。
　　[*]AccordingtoNabonidus’sdate3800B。C。，thoughmanyAssyriologistsregardthisasbeingamillenniumtooearly。
　　TheearliestformoftheBabylonianreligion。
　　ThestateofdevelopmenttowhichthereligioussystemoftheBabylonianshadattainedattheearliestperiodtowhichtheinscriptionsrefernaturallyprecludesthepossibilityofatrustworthyhistoryofitsoriginandearlygrowth。Thereisnodoubt，however，thatitmayberegardedashavingreachedthestageatwhichwefinditinconsequenceoftherebeinganumberofstatesinancientBabylonia（whichwasatthattimeliketheHeptarchyinEngland）eachpossessingitsowndivinity——who，initsdistrict，wasregardedassupreme——withanumberoflessergodsforminghiscourt。ItwastheaddingtogetherofallthesesmallpantheonswhichultimatelymadethatofBabyloniaasawholesoexceedinglyextensive。ThusthechiefdivinityofBabylon，ashasalreadybeenstated，asMerodach；atSipparandLarsathesun—god？ama？wasworshipped；atUrthemoon—godSinorNannar；atErechandDêrthegodoftheheavens，Anu；atMuru，Ennigi，andKakru，thegodoftheatmosphere，HadadorRimmon；atêridu，thegodofthedeep，Aaorêa；atNiffur[*]thegodBel；atCuthahthegodofwar，Nergal；atDailemthegodUra？；atKi？thegodofbattle，Zagaga；Lugal—Amarda，thekingofMarad，asthecitysocalled；atOpisZakar，oneofthegodsofdreams；atAgadé，Nineveh，andArbela，I？tar，goddessofloveandofwar；NinaatthecityNinainBabylonia，etc。Whenthechiefdeitiesweremasculine，theywerenaturallyallidentifiedwitheachother，justastheGreekscalledtheBabylonianMerodachbythenameofZeus；andasZer—pan？tum，theconsortofMerodach，wasidentifiedwithJuno，sotheconsorts，divineattendants，andchildrenofeachchiefdivinity，asfarastheypossessedthem，couldalsoberegardedasthesame，thoughpossiblydistinctintheirdifferentattributes。
　　[*]Noufaratpresent，accordingtothelatestexplorers。Layard（1856）hasNiffer，Loftus（1857）Niffar。ThenativespellingisNoufer，duetotheFrenchsystemofphonetics。
　　HowthereligionoftheBabyloniansdeveloped。
　　ThefactthattheriseofMerodachtothepositionofkingofthegodswasduetotheattainment，bythecityofBabylon，ofthepositionofcapitalofallBabylonia，leadsonetosuspectthatthekinglyrankofhisfatherêa，atanearlierperiod，wasduetoasomewhatsimilarcause，andifso，thestillearlierkingshipofAnu，thegodoftheheavens，maybeinlikemannerexplained。ThisleadstothequestionwhetherthefirststatetoattaintosupremacywasDêr，Anu’sseat，andwhetherDêrwassucceededbyêridu，ofwhichcityêawasthepatron——concerningtheimportanceofBabylon，Merodach’scity，lateron，thereisnodoubtwhatever。TheriseofAnuandêatodivineoverlordship，however，maynothavebeenduetothepoliticalsupremacyofthecitieswheretheywereworshipped——itmayhavecomeaboutsimplyonaccountofrenowngainedthroughreligiousenthusiasmduetowonderssaidtohavebeenperformedwheretheywereworshipped，ortothereporteddiscoveryofnewrecordsconcerningtheirtemples，ortotheinfluenceofsomerenownedhigh—priest，likeEn—we—dur—an—kiofSippar，whosedevotionundoubtedlybroughtgreatrenowntothecityofhisdominion。
　　WasAnimismitsoriginalform？
　　Butthequestionnaturallyarises，canwegobackbeyondtheindicationsoftheinscriptions？TheBabyloniansattributedlife，incertainnotverynumerouscases，tosuchthingsastreesandplants，andnaturallytothewinds，andtheheavenlybodies。Whethertheyregardedstones，rocks，mountains，storms，andraininthesameway，however，isdoubtful，butitmaybetakenforgranted，thatthesea，withallitsriversandstreams，wasregardedasanimatedwiththespiritofêaandhischildren，whilstthegreatcitiesandtemple—towerswerepervadedwiththespiritofthegodwhoseabodetheywere。Innumerablegoodandevilspiritswerebelievedin，suchasthespiritofthemountain，thesea，theplain，andthegrave。Thesespiritswereofvariouskinds，andborenameswhichdonotalwaysrevealtheirrealcharacter——suchasthe/edimmu/，/utukku/，/？êdu/，/a？akku/（spiritoffevers），/namtaru/（spiritoffate），/al？/
　　（regardedasthespiritofthesouthwind），/gallu/，/rabisu/，/labartu/，/labasu/，/ahhazu/（theseizer），/lilu/and/lilithu/（maleandfemalespiritsofthemist），withtheirattendants。
　　AllthispointstoanimismasthepervadingideaoftheworshipofthepeoplesoftheBabylonianstatesintheprehistoricperiod——theattributionoflifetoeveryappearanceofnature。Thequestionis，however，Istheevidenceoftheinscriptionssufficienttomakethisabsolutelycertain？Itishardtobelievethatsuchintelligentpeople，astheprimitiveBabyloniansnaturallywere，believedthatsuchthingsasstones，rocks，mountains，storms，andrainwere，inthemselves，andapartfromthedivinitywhichtheyregardedaspresidingoverthem，livingthings。Astonemightbea/b？t？li/orbethel——a"houseofgod，"andalmostinvestedwiththestatusofalivingthing，butthatdoesnotprovethattheBabyloniansthoughtofeverystoneasbeingendowedwithlife，eveninprehistorictimes。
　　Whilst，therefore，therearetracesofabeliefsimilartothatwhichananimisticcreedmightberegardedaspossessing，itmustbeadmittedthattheseseeminglyanimisticdoctrinesmayhaveoriginatedinanotherway，andbeduetolaterdevelopments。Thepowerofthegodstocreatelivingthingsnaturallymakespossiblethebeliefthattheyhadalsopowertoendowwithasoul，andthereforewithlifeandintelligence，anyseeminglyinanimateobject。SuchwasprobablythenatureofBabyloniananimism，ifitmaybesocalled。ThelegendofTiawthu（Tiawath）maywithgreatprobabilityberegardedastheremainsofaprimitiveanimismwhichwasthecreedoftheoriginalandcomparativelyuncivilisedBabylonians，whosawintheseatheproducerandcreatorofallthemonstrousshapeswhicharefoundtherein；butanydevelopmentofthisideainotherdirectionswasprobablycutshortbythepriests，whomusthaverealised，undertheinfluenceofthedoctrineofthedivinerisetoperfection，thatanimismingeneralwasaltogetherincompatiblewiththecreedwhichtheyprofessed。
　　Image—worshipandSacredStones。
　　Whetherimage—worshipwasoriginalamongtheBabyloniansandAssyriansisuncertain，andimprobable；thetendencyamongthepeopleinearlytimesbeingtoveneratesacredstonesandotherinanimateobjects。Ashasbeenalreadypointedout，the{diopetres}oftheGreekswasprobablyameteorite，andstonesmarkingthepositionoftheSemiticbethelswereprobably，intheirorigin，thesame。Theboulderswhichweresometimesusedforboundary—stonesmayhavebeentherepresentationsofthesemeteoritesinlatertimes，anditisnoteworthythattheSumeriangroupfor"iron，"/an—bar/，impliesthattheearlyBabyloniansonlyknewofthatmetalfrommeteoricironstone。
　　ThenameofthegodNirigorênu—rê？tu（Ninip）isgenerallywrittenwiththesamegroup，implyingsomekindofconnectionbetweenthetwo——thegodandtheiron。Inawell—knownhymntothatdeitycertainstonesarementioned，oneofthembeingdescribedasthe"poison—
　　tooth"[*]comingforthonthemountain，recallingthesacredrocksatJerusalemandMecca。Boundary—stonesinBabyloniawerenotsacredobjectsexceptinsofarastheyweresculpturedwiththesignsofthegods。[？]WithregardtotheBabylonianbethels，verylittlecanbesaid，theirtruenaturebeinguncertain，andtheirnumber，toallappearance，small。Giftsweremadetothem，andfromthisfactitwouldseemthattheyweretemples——true"housesofgod，"infact——
　　probablycontaininganimageofthedeity，ratherthanastonesimilartothosereferredtointheOldTestament。
　　[*]Socalled，probably，notbecauseitsentforthpoison，butonaccountofitslikenesstoaserpent’sfang。
　　[？]Notwithstandingmedicalopinion，theirphallicoriginisdoubtful。
　　OneissculpturedintheformofanEasterncastellatedfortress。
　　Idols。
　　WiththeBabylonians，thegodswererepresentedbymeansofstoneimagesataveryearlydate，anditispossiblethatwoodwasalsoused。ThetendencyofthehumanmindbeingtoattributetotheDeityahumanform，theBabylonianswerenoexceptiontotherule。Humanthoughtsandfeelingswouldnaturallyaccompanythehumanformwithwhichthemindsofmenendowedthem。WhetherthegrosshumanpassionsattributedtothegodsofBabyloniainHerodotusbeofearlydateornotisuncertain——alateperiod，whenthereligionbegantodegenerate，wouldseemtobethemoreprobable。
　　Theadorationofsacredobjects。
　　Itisprobablethatobjectsbelongingtoordedicatedtodeitieswerenotoriginallyworshipped——theywereheldasdivineinconsequenceoftheirbeingpossessedorusedbyadeity，likethebowofMerodach，placedintheheavensasaconstellation，etc。Thecitieswherethegodsdweltonearth，theirtemples，theircouches，thechariotofthesuninhistemple—cities，andeverythingexistinginconnectionwiththeirworship，wereinallprobabilityregardedasdivinesimplyinsofarastheybelongedtoagod。Sacrificesofferedtothem，andinvocationsmadetothem，wereinalllikelihoodregardedashavingbeenmadetothedeityhimself，thepossessionsofthedivinitybeing，inthemindsoftheBabylonians，pervadedwithhisspirit。Inthecaseofrivers，theseweredivineasbeingthechildrenandoffspringofEnki（Aaorêa），thegodoftheocean。
　　Holyplaces。
　　Inacountrywhichwasoriginallydividedintomanysmallstates，eachhavingitsowndeities，and，toacertainextent，itsownreligioussystem，holyplaceswerenaturallynumerous。AsthespotwheretheyplacedParadise，Babyloniawasitselfaholyplace，butinallprobabilitythisideaislate，andonlycameintoexistenceafterthelegendsofthecreationandtheriseofMerodachtothekingshipofheavenhadbecomeelaboratedintoonehomogeneouswhole。
　　Aninterestinglist。
　　OneofthemostinterestingdocumentsreferringtotheholyplacesofBabyloniaisatinytabletfoundatNineveh，andpreservedintheBritishMuseum。ThistextbeginswiththewordTiawthu"thesea，"andgoesontoenumerate，inturn，Tilmun（identifiedwiththeislandofBahreininthePersianGulf）；Engurra（theAbyss，theabodeofEnkiorêa），withnumeroustemplesandshrines，including"theholyhouse，"
　　"thetempleoftheseerofheavenandearth，""theabodeofZer—
　　pan？tum，"consortofMerodach，"thethroneoftheholyplace，""thetempleoftheregionofHades，""thesupremetempleoflife，""thetempleoftheearofthecorn—deity，"withmanyothers，thewholelistcontainingwhatmayberegardedasthechiefsanctuariesoftheland，tothenumberofthirty—one。Numerousothersimilarandmoreextensivelists，enumeratingeveryshrineandtempleinthecountry，alsoexist，thoughinaveryimperfectstate，andinadditiontothese，manyholyplacesarereferredtointhebilingual，historical，andotherinscriptions。AllthegreatcitiesofBabylonia，moreover，weresacredplaces，thechiefinrenownandimportanceinlaterdaysbeingthegreatcityofBabylon，whereê—sagila，"thetempleofthehighhead，"
　　inwhichwasapparentlytheshrinecalled"thetempleofthefoundationofheavenandearth，"heldthefirstplace。ThisbuildingiscalledbyNebuchadnezzar"thetemple—towerofBabylon，"andmaybetterberegardedasthesiteoftheBiblical"TowerofBabel"thanthetraditionalfoundation，ê—zida，"theeverlastingtemple，"inBorsippa（theBirsNimroud）——notwithstandingthatBorsippawascalledthe"secondBabylon，"anditstemple—tower"thesupremehouseoflife。"
　　TheTowerofBabel。
　　ThoughquiteclosetoBabylon，thereisnodoubtthatBorsippawasamostimportantreligiouscentre，andthisleadstothepossibility，thatitsgreattemplemayhavedisputedwith"thehouseofthehighhead，"ê—sagilainBabylon，thehonourofbeingthesiteoftheconfusionoftonguesandthedispersionofmankind。Thereisnodoubt，however，thatê—sagilahasthepriorclaim，itbeingthetempleofthesupremegodofthelaterBabylonianpantheon，thecounterpartoftheGodoftheHebrewswhocommandedthechangingofthespeechofthepeopleassembledthere。SupposingtheconfusionoftonguestohavebeenaBabylonianlegendaswellasaHebrewone（asispossible）itwouldbebycommandofMerodachratherthanthatofNebothatsuchathingwouldhavetakenplace。ê—sagila，whichisnowtheruinknownasthemountofAmranibnAli，isthecelebratedtempleofBeluswhichAlexanderandPhilipattemptedtorestore。
　　Inadditiontothelegendoftheconfusionoftongues，itisprobablethatthereweremanysimilartraditionsattachedtothegreattemplesofBabylonia，andastimegoeson，andtheexcavationsbringmorematerial，alargenumberofthemwillprobablyberecovered。AlreadywehaveaninterestingandpoeticalrecordoftheentryofBelandBeltisintothegreattempleatNiffer，probablycopiedfromsomeancientsource，andGudea，akingofLaga？（Telloh），whoreignedabout2700B。C。，givesanaccountofthedreamwhichhesaw，inwhichhewasinstructedbythegodstobuildorrebuildthetempleofNin—Girsuinhiscapitalcity。
　　ê—sagilaaccordingtoHerodotus。
　　AsthechieffaneinthelandafterBabylonbecamethecapital，andthetypeofmanysimilarerections，ê—sagila，thetempleofBelus，meritsjustashortnotice。AccordingtoHerodotus，itwasamassivetowerwithinanenclosuremeasuring400yardseachway，andprovidedwithgatesofbrass，orratherbronze。Thetowerwithinconsistedofakindofstep—pyramid，thestagesbeingseveninnumber（omittingthelowest，whichwastheplatformformingthefoundationofthestructure）。Awindingascentgaveaccesstothetop，wherewasachapelorshrine，containingnostatue，butregardedbytheBabyloniansastheabodeofthegod。Lowerdownwasanothershrine，inwhichwasplacedagreatstatueofZeus（Bel—Merodach）sitting，withalargetablebeforeit。Bothstatueandtablearesaidtohavebeenofgold，aswerealsothethroneandthesteps。Outsidethesanctuary（ontheramp，apparently）weretwoaltars，onesmallandmadeofgold，whereononlyunweanedlambsweresacrificed，andtheotherlarger，forfull—grownvictims。
　　ABabyloniandescription。
　　In1876thewell—knownAssyriologist，Mr。GeorgeSmith，wasfortunateenoughtodiscoveraBabyloniandescriptionofthistemple，ofwhichhepublisheda/précis/。Accordingtothisdocument，thereweretwocourtsofconsiderableextent，thesmallerwithinthelarger——neitherofthemwassquare，butoblong。Sixgatesadmittedtothetemple—areasurroundingtheplatformuponwhichthetowerwasbuilt。Theplatformisstatedtohavebeensquareandwalled，withfourgatesfacingthecardinalpoints。Withinthiswallwasabuildingconnectedwiththegreat/zikkurat/ortower——theprincipaledifice——roundwhichwerechapelsortemplestotheprincipalgods，onallfoursides，andfacingthecardinalpoints——thattoNeboandTa？m？tbeingontheeast，toAaorêaandNuskuonthenorth，AnuandBelonthesouth，andtheseriesofbuildingsonthewest，consistingofadoublehouse——asmallcourtbetweentwowings，wasevidentlytheshrineofMerodach（Belos）。
　　Inthesewesternchambersstoodthecouchofthegod，andthegoldenthronementionedbyHerodotus，besidesotherfurnitureofgreatvalue。
　　Thecouchwasgivenasbeing9cubitslongby4broad，aboutasmanyfeetineachcase，orrathermore。
　　Thecentreofthesebuildingswasthegreat/zikkurat/，ortemple—
　　tower，squareonitsplan，andwiththesidesfacingthecardinalpoints。Theloweststagewas15/gar/squareby51/2high（Smith，300
　　feetby110），andthewall，inaccordancewiththeusualBabyloniancustom，seemstohavebeenornamentedwithrecessedgroovings。Thesecondstagewas13/gar/squareby3inheight（Smith，260by60
　　feet）。Heconjectured，fromtheexpressionused，thatithadslopingsides。Stagesthreetofivewereeachone/gar/（Smith，20feet）high，andrespectively10/gar/（Smith，200feet），81/2/gar/（170feet），and7/gar/（140feet）square。Thedimensionsofthesixthstageareomitted，probablybyaccident，butSmithconjecturesthattheywereinproportiontothosewhichprecede。Hisdescriptionomitsalsothedimensionsoftheseventhstage，buthegivesthoseofthesanctuaryofBelus，whichwasbuiltuponit。Thiswas4/gar/long，31/2/gar/
　　broad，and21/2/gar/high（Smith，80x70x50feet）。Hepointsout，thatthetotalheightwas，therefore，15/gar/，thesameasthedimensionsofthebase，i。e。，thelowestplatform，whichwouldmakethetotalheightofthisworld—renownedbuildingrathermorethan300
　　feetabovetheplains。
　　Othertemple—towers。
　　TowersofasimilarnatureweretobefoundinallthegreatcitiesofBabylonia，anditisprobablethatinmostcasesslightdifferencesofformweretobefound。ThatatNiffer，forinstance，seemstohavehadacausewayoneachside，makingfourapproachesintheformofacross。Butitwasnoteverycitywhichhadatowerofsevenstagesinadditiontotheplatformonwhichitwaserected，andsomeofthesmalleronesatleastseemtohavehadslopingorroundedsidestothebasement—portion，asisindicatedbyanAssyrianbas—relief。Naturallysmalltemples，withhardlymorethantheroomsonthegroundfloor，weretobefound，butthesetemple—towerswereaspecialityofthecountry。
　　Theirorigin。
　　Thereissomeprobabilitythat，asindicatedinthetenthchapterofGenesis，thedesireinbuildingthesetowerswastogetnearertheDeity，ortothedivineinhabitantsoftheheavensingeneral——itwouldbeeasiertheretogainattentionthanonthesurfaceoftheearth。Thentherewasthebelief，thatthegodtowhomtheplacewasdedicatedwouldcomedowntosuchasanctuary，whichthusbecame，asitwere，thestepping—stonebetweenheavenandearth。Sacrificeswerealsoofferedatthesetemple—towers（whetheronthehighestpointornotisnotquitecertain），inimitationoftheChald？anNoah，Ut—napi？tim，who，oncomingoutoftheark，madeanoffering/inazikkurat？adê/，"onthepeakofthemountain，"inwhichpassage，itistobenoted，theword/zikkurat/occurswithwhatisprobablyamoreoriginalmeaning。
　　CHAPTERIII
　　THEBABYLONIANSTORYOFTHECREATION
　　ThisisthefinaldevelopmentoftheBabyloniancreed。IthasalreadybeenpointedoutthatthereligionoftheBabyloniansinallprobabilityhadtwostagesbeforearrivingatthatinwhichthegodMerodachoccupiedthepositionofchiefofthepantheon，thetwoprecedingheadshavingbeen，seemingly，Anu，thegodoftheheavens，andêaorAa，alsocalledEnki，thegodoftheabyssandofdeepwisdom。Inordertoshowthis，andatthesametimetogiveanideaoftheirtheoryofthebeginningofthings，ashortparaphraseofthecontentsoftheseventabletswillbefoundinthefollowingpages。
　　AnEmbodimentofdoctrine。
　　Asfarasourknowledgegoes，thedoctrinesincorporatedinthislegendwouldseemtoshowthefinalofficialdevelopmentofthebeliefsheldbytheBabylonians，due，inallprobability，tothepriestsofBabylonafterthatcitybecamethecapitalofthefederatedstates。Modificationsoftheircreedprobablytookplace，butnothingseriouslyaffectingit，untilaftertheabandonmentofBabyloninthetimeofSeleucusNicator，300B。C。orthereabouts，whenthedeityattheheadofthepantheonseemsnottohavebeenMerodach，butAnu—Bêl。
　　ThislegendisthereforethemostimportantdocumentbearinguponthebeliefsoftheBabyloniansfromtheendofthethirdmillenniumB。C。
　　untilthattime，andthephilosophicalideaswhichitcontainsseemtohavebeenheld，inamoreorlessmodifiedform，amongtheremnantswhostillretainedtheoldBabylonianfaith，untilthesixthcenturyofthepresentera，astherecordbyDamasciusimplies。Properlyspeaking，itisnotarecordofthecreation，butthestoryofthefightbetweenBelandtheDragon，towhichtheaccountofthecreationisprefixedbywayofintroduction。
　　Waterthefirstcreator。
　　Thelegendbeginsbystatingthat，whentheheavenswereunnamedandtheearthborenoname，theprim？valoceanwastheproducerofallthings，andMummuTiawath（thesea）shewhobroughtfortheverythingexisting。Theirwaters（thatis，oftheprim？valoceanandofthesea）
　　wereallunitedinone，andneitherplainsnormarshesweretobeseen；thegodslikewisedidnotexist，eveninname，andthefateswereundetermined——nothinghadbeendecidedastothefutureofthings。Thenarosethegreatgods。LahmuandLahamecamefirst，followed，afteralongperiod，byAn？arandKi？ar，generallyidentifiedwiththe"hostofheaven"andthe"hostofearth，"thesebeingthemeaningsofthecomponentpartsoftheirnames。Afterafurtherlongperiodofdays，therecameforththeirsonAnu，thegodoftheheavens。
　　Thegods。
　　Herethenarrativeisdefective，andiscontinuedbyDamasciusinhis/DoubtsandSolutionsoftheFirstPrinciples/，inwhichhestatesthat，afterAnos（Anu），comeIllinos（EllilaorBel，"thelord"/parexcellence/）andAos（Aa，Ae，orêa），thegodofEridu。OfAosandDauké（theBabylonianAaandDamkina）isborn，hesays，asoncalledBelos（Bel—Merodach），who，they（apparentlytheBabylonians）say，isthefabricatoroftheworld——thecreator。
　　Thedesignsagainstthem。
　　AtthispointDamasciusendshisextract，andtheBabyloniantabletalsobecomesextremelydefective。Thenextdeitytocomeintoexistence，however，wouldseemtohavebeenNudimmud，whowasapparentlythedeityAaorêa（thegodoftheseaandofrivers）asthegodofcreation。AmongthechildrenofTauthé（Tiawath）enumeratedbyDamasciusisonenamedMoumis，whowasevidentlyreferredtointhedocumentatthatphilosopher’sdisposal。Ifthisbecorrect，hisname，undertheformofMummu，probablyexistedinoneofthedefectivelinesofthefirstportionofthislegend——inanycase，hisnameoccurslateron，withthoseofTiawathandApsu（theDeep），hisparents，andthethreeseemtobecompared，totheirdisadvantage，withtheprogenyofLahmuandLahame，thegodsonhigh。AsthewaysoftheselastwerenotthoseofTiawath’sbrood，andApsucomplainedthathehadnopeacebydaynorrestbynightonaccountoftheirproceedings，thethreerepresentativesofthechaoticdeep，Tiawath，Apsu，andMummu，discussedhowtheymightgetridthebeingswhowishedtorisetohigherthings。Mummuwasapparentlytheprimemoverintheplot，andthefaceofApsugrewbrightatthethoughtoftheevilplanwhichtheyhaddevisedagainst"thegodstheirsons。"Theinscriptionbeingverymutilatedhere，itsfulldriftcannotbegathered，butfromthecompleteportionswhichcomelateritwouldseemthatMummu’splanwasnotaremarkablycunningone，beingsimplytomakewaruponanddestroythegodsofheaven。
　　Tiawath’spreparations。
　　Thepreparationsmadeforthiswereelaborate。Restlessly，dayandnight，thepowersofevilragedandtoiled，andassembledforthefight。’MotherHubur，"asTiawathisnamedinthispassage，calledhercreativepowersintoaction，andgaveherfollowersirresistibleweapons。Shebroughtintobeingalsovariousmonsters——giantserpents，sharpoftooth，bearingstings，andwithpoisonfillingtheirbodieslikeblood；terribledragonsendowedwithbrilliance，andofenormousstature，rearedonhigh，ragingdogs，scorpion—men，fish—men，andmanyotherterriblebeings，werecreatedandequipped，thewholebeingplacedunderthecommandofadeitynamedKingu，whomshecallsher"onlyhusband，"andtowhomshedeliversthetabletsoffate，whichconferreduponhimthegodheadofAnu（theheavens），andenabledtheirpossessortodeterminethegatesamongthegodshersons。
　　KingureplacesAbsu。
　　ThechangeinthenarrativewhichcomesinheresuggeststhatthisisthepointatwhichtwolegendscurrentinBabyloniawereunited。
　　HenceforwardwehearnothingmoreofApsu，thebegetterofallthings，Tiawath’sspouse，norofMummu，theirson。Inallprobabilitythereisgoodreasonforthis，andinscriptionswilldoubtlessultimatelybefoundwhichwillexplainit，butuntilthenitisonlynaturaltosupposethattwodifferentlegendshavebeenpiecedtogethertoformaharmoniouswhole。
　　Tiawath’saim。
　　Aswillbegatheredfromtheabove，thestorycentresinthewishofthegoddessofthepowersofevilandherkindredtoretaincreation——
　　theformingofalllivingthings——inherownhands。AsTiawathmeans"thesea，"andApsu"thedeep，"itisprobablethatthisisakindofallegorypersonifyingtheproductivepowerseenintheteeminglifeoftheocean，andtypifyingthestrangeandwonderfulformsfoundtherein，whichweresymbolical，totheBabylonianmind，ofchaosandconfusion，aswellasofevil。
　　Thegodshearoftheconspiracy。
　　Aa，orêa，havinglearnedoftheplotofTiawathandherfollowersagainstthegodsofheaven，naturallybecamefilledwithanger，andwentandtoldthewholetoAn？ar，hisfather，whoinhisturngavewaytohiswrath，andutteredcriesofthedeepestgrief。Afterconsideringwhattheywoulddo，An？arappliedtohissonAnu，"themightyandbrave，"sayingthat，ifhewouldonlyspeaktoher，thegreatdragon’sangerwouldbeassuaged，andherragedisappear。Inobediencetothisbehest，Anuwenttotryhispowerwiththemonster，butonbeholdinghersnarlingface，fearedtoapproachher，andturnedback。Nudimmudwasnextcalledupontobecometherepresentativeofthegodsagainsttheirfoe，buthissuccesswasasthatofAnu，anditbecameneedfultoseekanotherchampion。
　　AndchooseMerodachastheirchampion。
　　ThechoicefelluponMerodach，theBelus（Bel—Merodach）ofDamascius’sparaphrase，andatoncemetwithanenthusiasticreception。Thegodaskedsimplythatan"unchangeablecommand"mightbegiventohim——
　　thatwhateverheordainedshouldwithoutfailcometopass，inorderthathemightdestroythecommonenemy。Invitationsweresenttothegodsaskingthemtoafestival，where，havingmettogether，theyateanddrank，and"decidedthefate"forMerodachtheiravenger，apparentlymeaningthathewasdecreedtheirdefenderintheconflictwithTiawath，andthatthepowerofcreatingandannihilatingbythewordofhismouthwashis。Honourswerethenconferreduponhim；
　　princelychamberswereerectedforhim，whereinhesatasjudge"inthepresenceofhisfathers，"andtheruleoverthewholeuniversewasgiventohim。Thetestingofhisnewlyacquiredpowerfollowed。A
　　garmentwasplacedintheirmidst：
　　"Hespakewithhismouth，andthegarmentwasdestroyed，Hespaketoitagain，andthegarmentwasreproduced。"
　　Merodachproclaimedking。
　　Onthisproofoftherealityofthepowersconferredonhim，allthegodsshouted"Merodachisking!"andhandedtohimsceptre，throne，andinsigniaofroyalty。Anirresistibleweapon，whichshouldshatterallhisenemies，wasthengiventohim，andhearmedhimselfalsowithspearordart，bow，andquiver；lightningflashedbeforehim，andflamingfirefilledhisbody。Anu，thegodoftheheavens，hadgivenhimagreatnet，andthishesetatthefourcardinalpoints，inorderthatnothingofthedragon，whenhehaddefeatedher，shouldescape。
　　Sevenwindshethencreatedtoaccompanyhim，andthegreatweaponcalled/Abubu/，"theFlood，"completedhisequipment。Allbeingready，hemountedhisdreadful，irresistiblechariot，towhichfoursteedswereyoked——steedsunsparing，rushingforward，rapidinflight，theirteethfullofvenom，foam—covered，experiencedingalloping，schooledinoverthrowing。Beingnowreadyforthefray，MerodachfaredforthtomeetTiawath，accompaniedbytheferventgoodwishesof"thegodshisfathers。"
　　ThefightwithTiawath。
　　Advancing，heregardedTiawath’sretreat，butthesightoftheenemywassomenacingthateventhegreatMerodach（ifweunderstandthetextrightly）begantofalter。This，however，wasnotforlong，andthekingofthegodsstoodbeforeTiawath，who，onherside，remainedfirmandundaunted。Inasomewhatlongspeech，inwhichhereproachesTiawathforherrebellion，hechallengeshertobattle，andthetwomeetinfiercestfight。Toallappearancethetypeofallevildidnotmakeuseofhonestweapons，butsoughttoovercomethekingofthegodswithincantationsandcharms。These，however，hadnottheslightesteffect，forshefoundherselfatonceenclosedinMerodach’snet，andonopeninghermouthtoresistandfreeherself，theevilwind，whichMerodachhadsentonbeforehim，entered，sothatshecouldnotcloseherlips，andthusinflated，herheartwasoverpowered，andshebecameapreytoherconqueror。Havingcutherasunderandtakenoutherheart，thusdestroyingherlife，hethrewherbodydownandstoodthereon。Herfollowersthenattemptedtoescape，butfoundthemselvessurroundedandunabletogetforth。Liketheirmistress，theywerethrownintothenet，andsatinbonds，beingafterwardsshutupinprison。AsforKingu，hewasraisedup，bound，anddeliveredtobewithUgga，thegodofdeath。Thetabletsoffate，whichTiawathhaddeliveredtoKingu，weretakenfromhimbyMerodach，whopressedhissealuponthem，andplacedtheminhisbreast。ThedeityAn？ar，whohadbeen，asitwouldseem，deprivedofhisrightfulpowerbyTiawath，receivedthatpoweragainonthedeathofthecommonfoe，andNudimmud"sawhisdesireuponhisenemy。"
　　Tiawath’sfate。
　　ThedismembermentofTiawaththenfollowed，andherveinshavingbeencutthrough，thenorthwindwascausedbythedeitytocarryherbloodawayintosecretplaces，astatementwhichprobablytypifiestheopeningofobstructionswhichpreventtheriversflowingfromthenorthfromrunningintothesouthernseas，helpedtheretobythenorthwind。Finallyherbodywasdivided，like"a/ma？dê/—fish，"intotwoparts，oneofwhichwasmadeintoacoveringfortheheavens——the"watersabovethefirmament"ofGenesisi。7。
　　Merodachorderstheworldanew。
　　Thencametheorderingoftheuniverseanew。HavingmadeacoveringfortheheavenswithhalfthebodyofthedefeatedDragonofChaos，MerodachsettheAbyss，theabodeofNudimmud，infront，andmadeacorrespondingedificeabove——theheavens——wherehefoundedstationsforthegodsAnu，Bel，andAe。Stationsforthegreatgodsinthelikenessofconstellations，togetherwithwhatisregardedastheZodiac，werehisnextwork。Hethendesignatedtheyear，settingthreeconstellationsforeachmonth，andmadeastationforNibiru——
　　Merodach’sownstar——astheoverseerofallthelightsinthefirmament。Hethencausedthenewmoon，Nannaru，toshine，andmadehimtherulerofthenight，indicatinghisphases，oneofwhichwasontheseventhday，andtheother，a/？abattu/，ordayofrest，inthemiddleofthemonth。Directionswithregardtothemoon’smovementsseemtofollow，buttherecordismutilated，andtheirrealnatureconsequentlydoubtful。Withregardtootherworkswhichwereperformedwehavenoinformation，asagappreventstheirbeingascertained。
　　Something，however，seemstohavebeendonewithMerodach’snet——
　　probablyitwasplacedintheheavensasaconstellation，aswashisbow，towhichseveralnamesweregiven。Lateron，thewindswereboundandassignedtotheirplaces，buttheaccountofthearrangementofotherthingsismutilatedandobscure，thoughitcanberecognisedthatthedetailsinthisplacewereofconsiderableinterest。
　　Thecreationofman。
　　Toallappearancethegods，afterhehadorderedtheuniverseandthethingsthenexisting，urgedMerodachtofurtherworksofwonder。
　　Takinguptheirsuggestion，heconsideredwhatheshoulddo，andthencommunicatedtohisfatherAehisplanforthecreationofmanwithhisownblood，inorderthattheserviceandworshipofthegodsmightbeestablished。Thisportionisalsounfortunatelyveryimperfect，andthedetailsofthecarryingoutoftheplanareentirelywanting。
　　Berosus’narrativefillsthegap。
　　ItisnoteworthythatthisportionofthenarrativehasbeenpreservedbyAbydenus，GeorgetheSyncellus，andEusebius，intheirquotationsfromBerosus。AccordingtothisChald？anwriter，therewasawomannamedOmoroca，or，inChald？an，Thalatth（apparentlyamistakeforThauatth，i。e。Tiawath），whosenamewasequivalenttotheGreekThalassa，thesea。Itwasshewhohadinherchargeallthestrangecreaturesthenexisting。Atthisperiod，Belus（Bel—Merodach）came，andcutthewomanasunder，formingoutofonehalftheearth，andoftheothertheheavens，atthesametimedestroyingallthecreatureswhichwerewithinher——allthisbeinganallegory，forthewholeuniverseconsistsofmoisture，andcreaturesareconstantlygeneratedtherein。Thedeitythencutoffhisownhead，andtheothergodsmixedtheblood，asitgushedout，withtheearth，andfromthismenwereformed。Henceitisthatmenarerational，andpartakeofdivineknowledge。
　　Asecondcreation。
　　ThisBelsus，"whoiscalledZeus，"dividedthedarkness，separatedtheheavensfromtheearth，andreducedtheuniversetoorder。Theanimalswhichhadbeencreated，however，notbeingabletobearthelight，died。Belusthen，seeingthevoidthusmade，orderedoneofthegodstotakeoffhishead，andmixthebloodwiththesoil，formingothermenandanimalswhichshouldbeabletobearthelight。Healsoformedthestars，thesun，themoon，andthefiveplanets。Itwouldthusseemthatthereweretwocreations，thefirsthavingbeenafailurebecauseBelushadnotforeseenthatitwasneedfultoproducebeingswhichshouldbeabletobearthelight。WhetherthisrepetitionwasreallyintheBabylonianlegend，orwhetherBerosus（orthosewhoquotehim）
　　hasmerelyinsertedandunitedtwovaryingaccounts，willonlybeknownwhenthecuneiformtextiscompleted。
　　Theconcludingtablet。
　　Thetabletofthefifty—onenamescompletestherecordofthetabletsfoundatNinevehandBabylon。InthisMerodachreceivesthetitlesofalltheothergods，thusidentifyinghimwiththem，andleadingtothattendencytomonotheismofwhichsomethingwillbesaidlateron。
　　Inthistext，whichiswritten，liketherestofthelegend，inpoeticalform，Merodachisrepeatedlycalled/Tutu/，amysticwordmeaning"creator，"and"begetter，"fromthereduplicateroot/tu/or/utu/——whichwastoallappearanceshisnamewhenitwasdesiredtorefertohimespeciallyinthatcharacter。NoteworthyinthisportionisthereferencetoMerodach’screationofmankind：——
　　Line25。"Tuto：Aga—azaga（thegloriouscrown）——mayhemakethecrownsglorious。
　　26。Thelordofthegloriousincantationbringingthedeadtolife；
　　27。Hewhohadmercyonthegodswhohadbeenoverpowered；
　　28。Madeheavytheyokewhichhehadlaidonthegodswhowerehisenemies，29。（And）toredeem（？）them，createdmankind。
　　30。’Themercifulone，’’hewithwhomissalvation，’
　　31。Mayhiswordbeestablished，andnotforgotten，32。Inthemouthoftheblack—headedones[*]whomhishandshavemade。"
　　[*]I。e。mankind。
　　Mantheredeemer。
　　Thephrase"toredeemthem"is，intheoriginal，/anapadi—？unu/，theverbbeingfrom/pad？/，"tospare，""setfree，"andifthisrenderingbecorrect，asseemsprobable，theBabylonianreasonsforthecreationofmankindwouldbe，thattheymightcarryontheserviceandworshipofthegods，andbytheirrighteousnessredeemthoseenemiesofthegodswhowereundergoingpunishmentfortheirhostility。WhetherbythisTiawath，Apsu，Mummu，Kingu，andthemonsterswhomshehadcreatedwereincluded，oronlythegodsofheavenwhohadjoinedher，therecorddoesnotsay。Naturally，thisdoctrinedependsentirelyuponthecorrectnessofthetranslationofthewordsquoted。Jensen，whofirstproposedthisrendering，makesnoattempttoexplainit，andsimplyasks："Does’them’in’toredeem（？）them’refertothegodsnamedinline28ortomankindandthentoafuture——howmeant？——
　　redemption？Eschatology？Zimmern’s’intheirplace’unprovable。
　　Delitzschrefrainsfromanexplanation。"
　　Thebilingualaccountofthecreation。AruruaidsMerodach。
　　WhilstdealingwiththispartofthereligiousbeliefsoftheBabylonians，afewwordsareneededconcerningthecreation—storywhichisprefixedtoanincantationusedinapurificationceremony。
　　TheoriginaltextisSumerian（dialectic），andisprovidedwithaSemitictranslation。Inthisinscription，afterstatingthatnothing（inthebeginning）existed，andeventhegreatcitiesandtemplesofBabyloniawereasyetunbuilt，theconditionoftheworldisbrieflyindicatedbythestatementthat"Allthelandsweresea。"TherenownedcitiesofBabyloniaseemtohavebeenregardedasbeingasmuchcreationsofMerodachastheworldanditsinhabitants——indeed，itisapparentlyfortheglorificationofthosecitiesbyattributingtheirorigintoMerodach，thatthebilingualaccountofthecreationwascomposed……"Whenwithintheseatherewasastream"——thatis，whentheveinsofTiawathhadbeencutthrough——êridu（probably=Paradise）andthetempleê—sagilawithintheAbysswereconstructed，andafterthatBabylonandtheearthlytempleofê—sagilawithinit。ThenhemadethegodsandtheAnnunnaki（thegodsoftheearth），proclaimedagloriouscityastheseatofthejoyoftheirhearts，andafterwardsmadeapleasantplaceinwhichthegodsmightdwell。Thecreationofmankindfollowed，inwhichMerodachwasaidedbythegoddessAruru，whomademankind’sseed。Finally，plants，trees，andtheanimals，wereproduced，afterwhichMerodachconstructedbricks，beams，houses，andcities，includingNifferandErechwiththeirrenownedtemples。
　　WeseehereachangeintheteachingwithregardtoMerodach——thegodsarenolongerspokenofas"hisfathers，"butheisthecreatorofthegods，aswellasofmankind。
　　Theorderofthegodsintheprincipallists。
　　Itisunfortunatethatnolistsofgodshavebeenfoundinasufficientlycompletestatetoallowoftheschemeafterwhichtheyweredrawnuptobedeterminedwithoutuncertainty。Itmay，nevertheless，beregardedasprobablethattheselists，atleastinsomecases，arearrangedinconformity（toacertainextent）withtheappearanceofthedeitiesintheso—calledcreation—story。SomeofthembeginwithAnu，andgivehimvariousnames，amongthembeingAn？arandKi？ar，LahmuandLahame，etc。Morespeciallyinteresting，however，isawell—knowntrilinguallistofgods，whichcontainsthenamesofthevariousdeitiesinthefollowingorder：——
　　EXTRACTSFROMTHETRILINGUALLIST
　　/Obverse/
　　Sumer。DialectSumer。StandardCommonExplanation（Semit。orSumer。）
　　1。DimmerDingir？luGod。
　　2。U—kiEn—kiê—aêaorAa。
　　3。Ga？an（？）—kiNin—kiDawkinaDauké，theconsortofêa。
　　4。Mu—ul—lilEn—lil—laBêlTheGodBel。
　　5。E—lumA—limBêl6。Ga？an（？）—lilNin—lil—ladam—bisalBel’sconsort。
　　7。U—lu—aNi—rigênu—rê？tuThegodofNiffer。
　　8。U—lib—aNi—rigênu—rê？tu9—12haveênu—rê？tu’sconsort，sister，andattendant。