AmostprofoundyetfantasticspeculatorontheprincipleswhichgovernthemovementsofHumanitywaswonttoextolasoneoftherulingsecretsofnaturewhathecalledthelawofthecontactofextremes.
Thehomelyproverbthat"extremesmeet"was,inhisview,agrandandpotenttruthineverysphereoflife;anaxiomwithwhichthephilosophercouldaslittledispenseastheastronomerwiththelawsofKeplerorthegreatdiscoveryofNewton.
Whetherthe"contactofextremes"besuchauniversalprincipleornot,astrikingillustrationofitmaybeseenintheeffecttheChineserevolutionseemslikelytoexerciseuponthecivilizedworld.Itmayseemaverystrange,andaveryparadoxicalassertionthatthenextuprisingofthepeopleofEurope,andtheirnextmovementforrepublicanfreedomandeconomyofGovernment,maydependmoreprobablyonwhatisnowpassingintheCelestialEmpire——theveryoppositeofEurope-thanonanyotherpoliticalcausethatnowexists——moreeventhanonthemenacesofRussiaandtheconsequentlikelihoodofageneralEuropeanwar.Butyetitisnoparadox,asallmayunderstandbyattentivelyconsideringthecircumstancesofthecase.
Whateverbethesocialcauses,andwhateverreligious,dynastic,ornationalshapetheymayassume,thathavebroughtaboutthechronicrebellionssubsistinginChinaforabouttenyearspast,andnowgatheredtogetherinoneformidablerevolutiontheoccasionofthisoutbreakhasunquestionablybeenaffordedbytheEnglishcannonforcinguponChinathatsoporificdrugcalledopium.BeforetheBritisharmstheauthorityoftheManchudynastyfelltopieces;thesuperstitiousfaithintheeternityoftheCelestialEmpirebrokedown;thebarbarousandhermetic,isolationfromthecivilizedworldwasinfringed;andanopeningwasmadeforthatintercoursewhichhassinceproceededsorapidlyunderthegoldenattractionsofCaliforniaandAustralia.AtthesametimethesilvercoinoftheEmpire,itslifeblood,begantobedrainedawaytotheBritishEastIndies.
Upto1830,thebalanceoftradebeingcontinuallyinfavouroftheChinese,thereexistedanuninterruptedimportationofsilverfromIndia,BritainAndtheUnitedStatesintoChina.Since1833,andespeciallysince1840,theexportofsilverfromChinatoIndiahasbecomealmostexhaustingfortheCelestialEmpire.HencethestrongdecreesoftheEmperoragainsttheopiumtrade,respondedtobystillstrongerresistancetohismeasures.Besidesthisimmediateeconomicalconsequence,thebriberyconnectedwithopiumsmugglinghasentirelydemoralizedtheChineseStateofficersintheSouthernprovinces.justastheEmperorwaswonttobeconsideredthefatherofallChina,sohisofficerswerelookeduponassustainingthepaternalrelationtotheirrespectivedistricts.Butthispatriarchalauthority,theonlymorallinkembracingthevastmachineryoftheState,hasgraduallybeencorrodedbythecorruptionofthoseofficers,whohavemadegreatgainsbyconnivingatopiumsmuggling.ThishasoccurredprincipallyinthesameSouthernprovinceswheretherebellioncommenced.Itisalmostneedlesstoobservethat,inthesamemeasureinwhichopiumhasobtainedthesovereigntyovertheChinese,theEmperorandhisstaffofpedanticmandarinshavebecomedispossessedoftheirownsovereignty.
Itwouldseemasthoughhistoryhadfirsttomakethiswholepeopledrunkbeforeitcouldrousethemoutoftheirhereditarystupidity.
Thoughscarcelyexistinginformertimes,theimportofEnglishcottons,andtoasmallextentofEnglishwoollens,hasrapidlyrisensince1833,theepochwhenthemonopolyoftradewithChinawastransferredfromtheEastIndiaCompanytoPrivatecommerce,andonamuchgreaterscalesince1840,theepochwhenothernations,andespeciallyourown,alsoobtainedashareintheChinesetrade.ThisintroductionofforeignmanufactureshashadasimilareffectonthenativeindustrytothatwhichitformerlyhadonAsiaMinor,PersiaandIndia.InChinathespinnersandweavershavesufferedgreatlyunderthisforeigncompetition,andthecommunityhasbecomeunsettledinproportion.
ThetributetobepaidtoEnglandaftertheunfortunatewarof1840,thegreatunproductiveconsumptionofopium,thedrainofthepreciousmetalsbythistrade,thedestructiveinfluenceofforeigncompetitiononnativemanufactures,thedemoralizedconditionofthepublicadministration,producedtwothings:theoldtaxationbecamemoreburdensomeandharassing,andnewtaxationwasaddedtotheold.ThusinadecreeoftheEmperor,datedPeking,Jan51853,wefindordersgiventotheviceroysandgovernorsofthesouthernprovincesofWuchangandHanyangtoremitanddeferthepaymentoftaxes,andespeciallynotinanycasetoexactmorethantheregularamount;forotherwise,saysthedecree,"howwillthepoorpeoplebeabletobearit?"And"Thus,perhaps,"continuestheEmperor,"willmypeople,inaperiodofgeneralhardshipanddistress,beexemptedfromtheevilsofbeingpursuedandworriedbythetax-gatherer."Suchlanguageasthis,andsuchconcessionsweremembertohaveheardfromAustria,theChinaofGermany,in1848.
Allthesedissolvingagenciesactingtogetheronthefinances,themorals,theindustry,andpoliticalstructureofChina,receivedtheirfulldevelopmentundertheEnglishcannonin1840,whichbrokedowntheauthorityoftheEmperor,andforcedtheCelestialEmpireintocontactwiththeterrestrialworld.CompleteisolationwastheprimeconditionofthepreservationofOldChina.ThatisolationhavingcometoaviolentendbythemediumofEngland,dissolutionmustfollowassurelyasthatofanymummycarefullypreservedinahermeticallysealedcoffin,wheneveritisbroughtintocontactwiththeopenair.Now,EnglandhavingbroughtabouttherevolutionofChina,thequestionishowthatrevolutionwillintimereactonEngland,andthroughEnglandonEurope.Thisquestionisnotdifficultofsolution.
TheattentionofourreadershasoftenbeencalledtotheunparalleledgrowthofBritishmanufacturessince1850.Amidthemostsurprisingprosperity,ithasnotbeendifficulttopointouttheclearsymptomsofanapproachingindustrialcrisis.NotwithstandingCaliforniaandAustralia,notwithstandingtheimmenseandunprecedentedemigration,theremustever,withoutanyparticularaccident,induetimearriveamomentwhentheextensionofthemarketsisunabletokeeppacewiththeextensionofBritishmanufactures,andthisdisproportionmustbringaboutanewcrisiswiththesamecertaintyasithasdoneinthepast.But,ifoneofthegreatmarketssuddenlybecomescontracted,thearrivalofthecrisisisnecessarilyacceleratedthereby.Now,theChineserebellionmust,forthetimebeing,havepreciselythiseffectuponEngland.Thenecessityforopeningnewmarkets,orforextendingtheoldones,wasoneoftheprinciplecausesofthereductionoftheBritishtea-duties,as,withanincreasedimportationoftea,anincreasedexportationofmanufacturestoChinawasexpectedtotakeplace.Now,thevalueoftheannualexportsfromtheUnitedKingdomtoChinaamounted,beforetherepealin1834ofthetradingmonopolypossessedbytheEastIndiaCompany,toonly?00,000;in1836,itreachedthesumof?,326,388;in1845,ithadrisento?,394,827;in1852itamountedtoabout?,000,000.ThequantityofteaimportedfromChinadidnotexceed,in1793,16,167,331lbs.;butin1845,itamountedto50,714,657lbs.;in1846,to57,584,561lbs.;itisnowabove60,000,000lbs.
Theteacropofthelastseasonwillnotproveshort,asshownalreadybytheexportlistsfromShanghai,of2,000,000lbs.abovetheprecedingyear.Thisexcessistobeaccountedforbytwocircumstances.Ononehand,thestateofthemarketatthecloseof1851wasmuchdepressed,andthelargesurplusstocklefthasbeenthrownintotheexportof1852.Ontheotherhand,therecentaccountsofthealteredBritishlegislationwithregardtoimportsoftea,reachingChina,havebroughtforwardalltheavailableteastoareadymarket,atgreatlyenhancedprices.Butwithrespecttothecomingcrop,thecasestandsverydifferently.Thisisshownbythefollowingextractsfromthecorrespondenceofalargetea-firminLondon:
"InShanghaitheterrorisdescribedasextreme.Goldhadadvancedinvalueupwardsof25percent.,beingeagerlysoughtforhoarding;silverhadsofardisappearedthatnonecouldbeobtainedtopaytheChineseduesontheBritishvesselsrequiringportclearance;andinconsequenceofwhichMr.ConsulAlcockhasconsentedtobecomeresponsibletotheChineseauthoritiesforthepaymentofthesedues,onreceiptofEastIndiaCompany'sbills,orotherapprovedsecurities.Thescarcityofthepreciousmetalsisoneofthemostunfavourablefeatures,whenviewedinreferencetotheimmediatefutureofcommerce,asthisabstractionoccurspreciselyatthatperiodwhentheiruseismostneeded,toenabletheteaandsilkbuyerstogointotheirinteriorandeffecttheirpurchases,forwhichalargeportionofbullionifpaidinadvance,toenabletheproducerstocarryontheiroperations."
Atthisperiodoftheyearitisusualtobeginmakingarrangementsforthenewteas,whereasatpresentnothingistalkedofbutthemeansofprotectingpersonandproperty,alltransactionsbeingatastand.
"ifthemeansarenotappliedtosecuretheleavesinAprilandMay,theearlycrop,whichincludesallthefinerdescriptions,bothofblackandgreenteas,willbeasmuchlostasunreapedwheatatChristmas."
NowthemeansforsecuringthetealeaveswillcertainlynotbegivenbytheEnglish,AmericanorFrenchsquadronsstationedintheChineseseas,butthesemayeasily,bytheirinterference,producesuchcomplicationsastocutoff-alltransactionsbetweenthetea-producinginteriorandtheteaexportingseaports.Thus,forthepresentcrop,ariseinthepricesmustbeexpected——speculationhasalreadycommencedinLondon——andforthecroptocomealargedeficitisasgoodascertain.Noristhisall.TheChinese,readythoughtheymaybe,asareallpeopleinperiodsofrevolutionaryconvulsion,tosellofftotheforeignerallthebulkycommoditiestheyhaveonhand,will,astheOrientalsareusedtodointheapprehensionofgreatchanges,settohoarding,nottakingmuchinreturnfortheirteaandsilk,excepthardmoney.Englandhasaccordinglytoexpectariseinthepriceofoneofherchiefarticlesofconsumption,adrainofbullion,andagreatcontractionofanimportantmarketforhercottonandwoollengoods.EventheEconomist,thatoptimistconjurerofallthingsmenacingthetranquilmindsofthemercantilecommunity,iscompelledtouselanguagelikethis:
"WemustnotflatterourselveswithfindingasextensiveamarketasformerlyforourexportstoChinaItismoreprobable,therefore,thatourexporttradetoChinashouldsuffer,andthatthereshouldbeadiminisheddemandfortheproduceofManchesterandGlasgow."
Itmustnotbeforgottenthattheriseinthepriceofsoindispensableanarticleastea,andthecontractionofsoimportantamarketasChina,willcoincidewithadeficientharvestinWesternEurope,and,therefore,withrisingpricesofmeat,corn,andallotheragriculturalproduce.Hencecontractedmarketsformanufacturers,becauseeveryriseinthepricesofthefirstnecessariesoflifeiscounterbalanced,athomeandabroad,byacorrespondingreductioninthedemandformanufactures.FromeverypartofGreatBritaincomplaintshavebeenreceivedonthebackwardstateofmostofthecrops.TheEconomistsaysonthissubject:
IntheSouthofEngland"notonlywilltherebeleftmuchlandunsown,untiltoolateforacropofanysort,butmuchofthesownlandwillprovetobefoul,orotherwiseinabadstateforcorn-growing."Onthewetorpoorsoilsdestinedforwheat,signsthatmischiefisgoingonareapparent."Thetimeforplantingmangel-wurzelmaynowbesaidtohavepassedaway,andverylittlehasbeenplanted,whilethetimeforpreparinglandforturnipsisrapidlygoingby,withoutanyadequatepreparationforthisimportantcrophavingbeenaccomplished
oat-sowinghasbeenmuchinterferedwithbythesnowandrain.Fewoatsweresownearly,andlate-sownoatsseldomproducealargecrop.
Inmanydistrictslossesamongthebreedingflockshavebeenconsiderable.Thepriceofotherfarm-producethancornisfrom20to30,andeven50percent.higherthanlastyear.OntheContinent,cornhasrisencomparativelymorethaninEngland.RyehasriseninBelgiumandHollandafull100percent.Wheatandothergrainsarefollowingsuit.
Underthesecircumstances,asthegreaterpartoftheregularcommercialcirclehasalreadybeenrunthroughbyBritishtrade,itmaysafelybeauguredthattheChineserevolutionwillthrowthesparkintotheoverloadedmineofthepresentindustrialsystemandcausetheexplosionofthelong-preparedgeneralcrisis,which,spreadingabroad,willbecloselyfollowedbypoliticalrevolutionsontheContinent.Itwouldbeacuriousspectacle,thatofChinasendingdisorderintotheWesternWorldwhiletheWesternPowers,byEnglish,FrenchandAmericanwar-steamers,areconveying"order"toShanghai,NankingandthemouthsoftheGreatCanal.Dotheseorder-mongeringPowers,whichwouldattempttosupportthewaveringManchudynasty,forgetthatthehatredagainstforeignersandtheirexclusionfromtheEmpire,oncethemereresultofChina'sgeographicalandethnographicalsituation,havebecomeapoliticalsystemonlysincetheconquestofthecountrybytheraceoftheManchuTatars?TherecanbenodoubtthattheturbulentdissensionsamongtheEuropeannationswho,atthelaterendofthe17thcentury,rivaledeachotherinthetradewithChina,lentamightyaidtotheexclusivepolicyadoptedbytheManchus.Butmorethanthiswasdonebythefearofthenewdynasty,lesttheforeignersmightfavourthediscontentexistingamongalargeproportionoftheChineseduringthefirsthalf-centuryorthereaboutsoftheirsubjectiontotheTatars.Fromtheseconsiderations,foreignerswerethenprohibitedfromallcommunicationwiththeChinese,exceptthroughCanton,atownatagreatdistancefromPekingandthetea-districts,andtheircommercerestrictedtointercoursewiththeHongmerchants,licensedbytheGovernmentexpresslyfortheforeigntrade,inordertokeeptherestofitssubjectsfromallconnectionwiththeodiousstrangers.InanycaseaninterferenceonthepartoftheWesternGovernmentsatthistimecanonlyservetorendertherevolutionmoreviolent,andprotractthestagnationoftrade.
AtthesametimeitistobeobservedwithregardtoIndiathattheBritishGovernmentofthatcountrydependsforfulloneseventhofitsrevenueonthesaleofopiumtotheChinesewhileaconsiderableproportionoftheIndiandemandforBritishmanufacturesdependsontheproductionofthatopiuminIndia.TheChinese,itistrue,arenomorelikelytorenouncetheuseofopiumthanaretheGermanstoforsweartobacco.ButasthenewEmperorisunderstoodtobefavourabletothecultureofthepoppyandthepreparationofopiuminChinaitself,itisevidentthatadeath-blowisverylikelytobestruckatonceatthebusinessofopium-raisinginIndia,theIndianrevenue,andthecommercialresourcesofHindostan.Thoughthisblowwouldnotimmediatelybefeltbytheinterestsconcerned,itwouldoperateeffectuallyinduetime,andwouldcomeintointensifyandprolongtheuniversalfinancialcrisiswhosehoroscopewehavecastabove.
SincethecommencementoftheeighteenthcenturytherehasbeennoseriousrevolutioninEuropewhichhadnotbeenprecededbyacommercialandfinancialcrisis.Thisappliesnolesstotherevolutionof1789thantothatof1848.ItonlythatweeverydaybeholdmorethreateningsconflictbetweentherulingpowersandtheirsubjectstheStateandsociety,betweenthevariousclasses;conflictoftheexistingpowersamongeachotherreachingthatheightwheretheswordmustbedrawn,andtheultimaratioofprincesberecurredto.
IntheEuropeancapitals,everydaybringsdespatchesbigwithuniversalwar,vanishingunderthedespatchesofthefollowingday,bearingtheassuranceofpeaceforaweekorso.Wemaybesure,nevertheless,thattowhateverheighttheconflictbetweentheEuropeanpowersmayrise,howeverthreateningtheaspectofthediplomatichorizonmayappear,whatevermovementsmaybeattemptedbysomeenthusiasticfractioninthisorthatcountry,therageofprincesandthe,furyofthepeoplearealikeenervatedbythebreathofprosperity.NeitherwarsnorrevolutionsarelikelytoputEuropebytheears,unlessinconsequenceofageneralcommercialandindustrialcrisis,thesignalofwhichhas,asusual,tobegivenbyEngland,therepresentativeofEuropeanindustryinthemarketoftheworld.
Itisunnecessarytodwellonthepoliticalconsequencessuchacrisismustproduceinthesetimes,withtheunprecedentedextensionoffactoriesinEngland,withtheutterdissolutionofherofficialparties,withthewholeStatemachineryofFrancetransformedintooneimmenseswindlingandstockjobbingconcern,withAustriaontheeveofbankruptcy,withwrongseverywhereaccumulatedtoberevengedbythepeople,withtheconflictinginterestsofthereactionarypowersthemselves,andwiththeRussiandreamofconquestoncemorerevealedtotheworld.
THECASEOFTHELORCHAARROWNewYorkDailyTribuneJan23,1857
byKARLMARX
THEMAILSoftheAmericawhichreachedusyesterdaymorningbringavarietyofdocumentsconcerningtheBritishquarrelwiththeChineseauthoritiesatCanton,andthewarlikeoperationsofAdmiralSeymour.
TheresultwhichacarefulstudyoftheofficialcorrespondencebetweentheBritishandChineseauthoritiesatHong-KongandCantonmust,wethink,produceuponeveryimpartialmind,isthattheBritishareinthewronginthewholeproceeding.Theallegedcauseofthequarrel,asstatedbythelatter,isthatinsteadofappealingtotheBritishConsul,certainChineseofficershadviolentlyremovedsomeChinesecriminalsfromalorchalyinginCantonriver,andhauleddowntheBritishflagwhichwasflyingfromitsmast.But,assaystheLondonTimes,"thereare,indeed,mattersindispute,suchaswhetherthelorchawascarryingBritishcolours,andwhethertheConsulwasentirelyjustifiedinthestepsthathetook."Thedoubtthusadmittedisconfirmedwhenwerememberthattheprovisionofthetreaty,whichtheConsulinsistsshouldbeappliedtothislorcha,relatestoBritishshipsalone;whilethelorcha,asitabundantlyappears,wasnotinanyjustsenseBritish.Butinorderthatourreadersmayhavethewholecasebeforethem,weproceedtogivewhatisimportantintheofficialcorrespondence.First,wehaveacommunicationdatedOct.21,fromMr.
Parkes,theBritishConsulatCanton,toGovernorGeneralYeh,asfollows:
"Onthemorningofthe8thinst.theBritishlorchaArrow,whenlyingamongtheshippinganchoredbeforethecity,wasboarded,withoutanypreviousreferencebeingmadetotheBritishConsul,byalargeforceofChineseofficersandsoldiersinuniform,who,inthefaceoftheremonstranceofhermaster,anEnglishman,seized,boundandcarriedawaytwelveChineseoutofhercrewoffourteen,andhauleddownhercolours.IreportedalltheparticularsofthispublicinsulttotheBritishflag,andgraveviolationofthenintharticleoftheSupplementaryTreaty,toyourExcellencythesameday,andappealedtoyoutoaffordsatisfactionfortheinsult,andcausetheprovisionsofthetreatytobeinthiscasefaithfullyobserved.ButyourExcellency,withastrangedisregardbothtojusticeandtreatyengagement,hasofferednoreparationorapologyfortheinjury,and,byretainingthemenyouhaveseizedinyourcustody,signifyyourapprovalofthisviolationofthetreaty,andleaveherMajesty'sGovernmentwithoutanyassurancethatsimilaraggressionsshallnotagainoccur."
ItseemsthattheChineseonboardthelorchawereseizedbytheChineseofficersbecausethelatterhadbeeninformedthatsomeofthecrewhadparticipatedinapiracycommittedagainstaChinesemerchantman.TheBritishConsulaccusestheChineseGovernor-Generalofseizingthecrew,ofhaulingdowntheBritishflag,ofdecliningtoofferanyapology,andofretainingthemenseizedinhiscustody.TheChineseGovernor,inaletteraddressedtoAdmiralSeymour,affirmsthat,havingascertainedthatnineofthecaptiveswereinnocent,hedirected,onOct.10,anofficertoputthemonboardoftheirvesselagain,butthatConsulParkesrefusedtoreceivethem.Astothelorchaitself,hestatesthatwhentheChineseonboardwereseized,shewassupposedtobeaChinesevessel,andrightlyso,becauseshewasbuiltbyaChinese,andbelongedtoaChinese,whohadfraudulentlyobtainedpossessionofaBritishensign,byenteringhisvesselonthecolonialBritishregistersmethod,itseems,habitualwithChinesesmugglers.Astothequestionoftheinsulttotheflag,theGovernorremarks:
"IthasbeentheinvariablerulewithlorchasofyourExcellency'snation,tohauldowntheirensignwhentheydropanchor,andtohoistitagainwhentheygetunderway.Whenthelorchawasboarded,inorderthattheprisonersmightbeseized,ithasbeensatisfactorilyprovedthatnoflagwasflying.Howthencouldaflaghavebeenhauleddown?YetConsulParkes,inonedespatchafteranother,pretendsthatsatisfactionisrequiredforthisinsultofferedtotheflag."
FromthesepremisestheChineseGovernorconcludesthatnobreachofanytreatyhasbeencommitted.OnOct.12,nevertheless,theBritishPlenipotentiarydemandednotonlythesurrenderofthewholeofthearrestedcrew,butalsoanapology.TheGovernorthusreplies:
"EarlyonthemorningOfOct.22,IwrotetoConsulParkes,andatthesametimeforwardedtohimtwelvemen,namely,LeongMing-taiandLeongKee-fu,convictedontheinquiryIhadinstituted,andthewitness,Wu-A-jin,togetherwithninepreviouslytendered.
ButMr.ConsulParkeswouldneitherreceivethetwelveprisonersnormyletter."
Parkesmight,therefore,havenowgotbackthewholeofhistwelvemen,togetherwithwhatwasmostprobablyanapology,containedinaletterwhichhedidnotopen.Intheeveningofthesameday,GovernorYehagainmadeinquirywhytheprisonerstenderedbyhimwerenotreceived,andwhyhereceivednoanswerto,hisletter.Nonoticewastakenofthisstep,butonthe24thfirewasopenedontheforts,andseveralofthemweretaken;anditwasnotuntilNov.1thatAdmiralSeymourexplainedtheapparentlyincomprehensibleconductofConsulParkesinamessagetotheGovernor.Themen,hesays,hadbeenrestoredtotheConsul,but"notpubliclyrestoredtotheirvessel,norhadtherequiredapologybeenmadefortheviolationoftheConsularjurisdiction."Tothisquibble,then,ofnotrestoringinstateasetofmennumberingthreeconvictedcriminals,thewholecaseisreduced.
TothistheGovernorofCantonanswers,first,thatthetwelvemenhadbeenactuallyhandedovertotheConsul,andthattherehadnotbeen"anyrefusaltoreturnthementotheirvessel."WhatwasstillthematterwiththisBritishConsul,theChineseGovernoronlylearnedafterthecityhadbeenbombardedforsixdays.Astoanapology,GovernorYehinsiststhatnonecouldbegiven,asnofaulthadbeencommitted.Wequotehiswords:
"Noforeignflagwasseenbymyexecutiveatthetimeofthecapture,andas,inadditiontothis,itwasascertainedontheexaminationoftheprisonersbytheofficerdeputedtoconductit,thatthelorchawasinnorespectaforeignvessel,Imaintainthattherewasnomistakecommitted."
Indeed,theforceofthisChinaman'sdialecticsdisposessoeffectuallyofthewholequestion——andthereisnootherapparentcase——thatAdmiralSeymouratlasthasnoresourcelefthimbutadeclarationlikethefollowing:
"ImustpositivelydeclineanyfurtherargumentonthemeritsofthecaseofthelorchaArrow.IamperfectlysatisfiedofthefactsasrepresentedtoyourExcellencybyMr.ConsulParkes."
Butafterhavingtakentheforts,breachedthewallsofthecity,andbombardedCantonforsixdays,theAdmiralsuddenlydiscoversquiteanewobjectforhismeasures,aswefindhimwritingtotheChineseGovernoronOct.30:
"ItisnowforyourExcellency,byimmediateconsultationwithme,toterminateaconditionofthingsofwhichthepresentevilisnotslight,butwhich,ifnotamended,canscarcelyfailtobeproductiveofthemostseriouscalamities."
TheChineseGovernoranswersthataccordingtotheConventionof1849,hehadnorighttoaskforsuchaconsultation.Hefurthersays:
"Inreferencetotheadmissionintothecity,Imustobservethat,inApril1849,hisExcellencythePlenipotentiaryBonhamissuedapublicnoticeatthefactorieshere,totheeffectthathetherebyprohibitedforeignersfromenteringthecity.Thenoticewasinsertedinthenewspapersofthetime,andwill,Ipresume,havebeenreadbyyourExcellency.AddtothisthattheexclusionofforeignersfromthecityisbytheunanimousvoteofthewholepopulationofKwangtong.Itmaybesupposedhowlittletotheirlikinghasbeenthisstormingofthefortsandthisdestructionoftheirdwellings;and,apprehensiveasIamoftheevilthatmayhencebefalltheofficialsandcitizensofyourExcellency'snation,IcansuggestnothingbetterthanacontinuedadherencetothepolicyofthePlenipotentiaryBonham,astothecorrectcoursetobepursued.AstotheconsultationproposedbyyourExcellency,Ihavealready,somedaysago,deputedTcheang,PrefectofLei-chow-fu."
AdmiralSeymournowmakesacleanbreastofit,declaringthathedoesnotcarefortheConventionofMr.Bonham:
"YourExcellency'sreplyrefersmetothenotificationoftheBritishPlenipotentiaryof1849,prohibitingforeignersfromenteringCanton.Now,Imustremindyouthat,althoughwehaveindeedseriousmatterofcomplaintagainsttheChineseGovernmentforbreachofthepromisegivenin1847toadmitforeignersintoCantonattheendoftwoyears,mydemandnowmadeisinnowayconnectedwithformernegotiationsonthesamesubject,neitheramIdemandingadmissionofanybuttheforeignofficials,andthisonlyforthesimpleandsufficientreasonsaboveassigned.
"OnmyproposaltotreatpersonallywithyourExcellency,youdomethehonourtoremarkthatyousentaprefectsomedaysago.I
amcompelledthereforetoregardyourExcellency'swholeletterasunsatisfactoryintheextreme,andhaveonlytoaddthat,unlessI
immediatelyreceiveanexplicitassuranceofyourassenttowhatI
haveproposed,Ishallatonceresumeoffensiveoperations."
GovernorYehretortsbyagainenteringintothedetailsoftheConventionof1849:
"In1848therewasalongcontroversialcorrespondenceonthesubjectbetweenmypredecessorLenandtheBritishPlenipotentiary,Mr.Bonham,andMr.Bonhambeingsatisfiedthataninterviewwithinthecitywasutterlyoutofthequestion,addressedalettertoLeuintheAprilof1849,inwhichhesaid,'AtthepresenttimeIcanhavenomorediscussionwithyourExcellencyonthissubject.'Hefurtherissuedanoticefromthefactoriestotheeffectthatnoforeignerwastoenterthecity,whichwasinsertedinthepapers,andhecommunicatedthistotheBritishGovernment.TherewasnotaChineseorforeignerofanynationwhodidnotknowthatthequestionwasnevertobediscussedagain."
Impatientofargument,theBritishAdmiralhereuponforceshiswayintotheCityofCantontotheresidenceoftheGovernor,atthesametimedestroyingtheImperialfleetintheriver.Thustherearetwodistinctactsinthisdiplomaticandmilitarydrama——thefirstintroducingthebombardmentofCantononthepretextofabreachoftheTreatyOf1842committedbytheChineseGovernor,andthesecond,continuingthatbombardmentonanenlargedscale,onthepretextthattheGovernorclungstubbornlytotheConventionof1849.FirstCantonisbombardedforbreakingatreaty,andnextitisbombardedforobservingatreaty.Besides,itisnotevenpretendedthatredresswasnotgiveninthefirstinstance,butonlythatredresswasnotgivenintheorthodoxmanner.
TheviewofthecaseputforthbytheLondonTimeswoulddonodiscrediteventoGeneralWilliamWalkerofNicaragua.
"Bythisoutbreakofhostilities,"saysthatjournal,"existingtreatiesareannulled,andweareleftfreetoshapeourrelationswiththeChineseEmpireaswepleasetherecentproceedingsatCantonwarnusthatweoughttoenforcethatrightoffreeentranceintothecountryandintotheportsopentouswhichwasstipulatedforbytheTreatyOf1842.WemustnotagainbetoldthatourrepresentativesmustbeexcludedfromthepresenceoftheChineseGovernor-General,becausewehavewaivedtheperformanceofthearticlewhichenabledforeignerstopenetratebeyondtheprecinctsofourfactories."
Inotherwords,"we"havecommencedhostilitiesinordertobreakanexistingtreatyandtoenforceaclaimwhich"we"havewaivedbyanexpressconvention!Wearehappytosay,however,thatanotherprominentorganofBritishopinionexpressesitselfinamorehumaneandbecomingtone.Itis,saystheDailyNews,a"monstrousfact,thatinordertoavengetheirritatedprideofaBritishofficial,andpunishthefollyofanAsiaticgovernor,weprostituteourstrengthtothewickedworkofcarryingfireandsword,anddesolationanddeath,intothepeacefulhomesofunoffendingmen,onwhoseshoreswewereoriginallyintruders.WhatevermaybetheissueofthisCantonbombardment,thedeeditselfisabadandabaseone——arecklessandwantonwasteofhumanlifeattheshrineofafalseetiquetteandamistakenpolicy."
Itis,perhaps,aquestionwhetherthecivilizednationsoftheworldwillapprovethismodeofinvadingapeacefulcountry,withoutpreviousdeclarationofwar,foranallegedinfringementofthefancifulcodeofdiplomaticetiquette.IfthefirstChinesewar,inspiteofitsinfamouspretext,waspatientlylookeduponbyotherPowers,becauseitheldouttheprospectofopeningthetradewithChina,isnotthissecondwarlikelytoobstructthattradeforanindefiniteperiod?ItsfirstresultmustbethecuttingoffofCantonfromthetea-growingdistricts,asyet,forthemostpart,inthehandsoftheimperialists——acircumstancewhichcannotprofitanybodybuttheRussianoverlandtea-traders.
WithregardtothereporteddestructionofaChinesefortbytheAmericanfrigatePortsmouth,wearenotyetsufficientlyinformedtoexpressadecidedopinion.
PARLIAMENTARYDEBATESONTHECHINESEHOSTILITIESNewYorkDailyTribuneMarch16,1857
byKARLMARX
THEEARLofDerby'sresolution,andthatofMr.Cobden,bothofthempassingcondemnationupontheChinesehostilities,weremovedaccordingtonoticesgiven,theoneonthe24thFebruary,intheHouseofLords,theotheronthe26thofFebruary,intheHouseofCommons.ThedebatesintheLordsendedonthesamedaywhenthedebatesintheCommonsbegan.TheformergavethePalmerstonCabinetashockbyleavingitinthecomparativelyweakmajorityof36votes.Thelattermayresultinitsdefeat.ButwhateverinterestmayattachtothediscussionintheCommons,thedebatesintheHouseofLordshaveexhaustedtheargumentativepartofthecontroversy-themasterlyspeechesofLordsDerbyandLyndhurstforestallingtheeloquenceofMr.
Cobden,SirE.Bulwer,LordJohnRussell,andtuttiquanti.
TheonlylawauthorityonthepartoftheGovernment,theLordChancellor,remarkedthat"unlessEnglandhadagoodcasewithregardtotheArrow,allproceedingsfromthelasttofirstwerewrong."DerbyandLyndhurstprovedbeyonddoubtthatEnglandhadnocaseatallwithregardtothatlorcha.ThelineofargumentfollowedbythemcoincidessomuchwiththattakenupinthecolumnsofTheTribuneonthefirstpublicationoftheEnglishdispatchesthatIamabletocondenseithereintoaverysmallcompass.
WhatisthechargeagainsttheChineseGovernmentuponwhichtheCantonmassacresarepretendedtorest?TheinfringementofArt.9oftheSupplementalTreatyOf1843.ThatarticleprescribesthatanyChineseoffenders,beinginthecolonyofHongKong,oronboardaBritishman-of-war,oronboardaBritishmerchantship,arenottobeseizedbytheChineseauthoritiesthemselves,butshouldbedemandedfromtheBritishConsul,andbyhimbehandedovertothenativeauthorities.
ChinesepirateswereseizedintheriverofCantononboardthelorchaArrow,byChineseofficers,withouttheinterventionoftheBritishConsul.Thequestionarises,therefore,wastheArrowaBritishvessel?Itwas,asLordDerbyshows,"avesselChinesebuilt,Chinesecaptured,Chinesesold,Chineseboughtandmanned,andChineseowned."
Bywhatmeans,then,wasthisChinesevesselconvertedintoaBritishmerchantman?BypurchasingatHongKongaBritishregisterorsailinglicence.ThelegalityofthisregisterreliesuponanordinanceofthelocallegislationofHong-Kong,passedinMarch,1855.ThatordinancenotonlyinfringedthetreatyexistingbetweenEnglandandChina,butannulledthelawofEnglandherself.Itwas,therefore,voidandnull.
SomesemblanceofEnglishlegalityitcouldbutreceivefromtheMerchantShippingAct,which,however,waspassedonlytwomonthsaftertheissueoftheordinance.AndevenwiththelegalprovisionsofthatActithadneverbeenbroughtintoconsonance.Theordinance,therefore,underwhichthelorchaArrowreceiveditsregister,wassomuchwastepaper.ButevenaccordingtothisworthlesspapertheArrowhadforfeiteditsprotectionbytheinfringementoftheprovisionsprescribed,andtheexpirationofitslicence.ThispointisconcededbySirJ.Bowringhimself.Butthen,itissaid,whetherornottheArrowwasanEnglishvessel,ithad,atallevents,hoistedtheEnglishflag,andthatflagwasinsulted.Firstly,iftheflagwasflying,itwasnotlegallyflying.Butwasitflyingatall?OnthispointthereexistsdiscrepancybetweentheEnglishandChinesedeclarations.Thelatterhave,however,beencorroboratedbydepositions,forwardedbytheConsuls,ofthemasterandcrewofthePortugueselorchaNo.83——
Withreferencetothesedepositions,TheFriendofChinaofNov.13
statesthat"itisnownotoriousatCantonthattheBritishflaghadnotbeenflyingonboardthelorchaforsixdaysprevioustoitsseizure."Thusfallstothegroundthepunctilioofhonourtogetherwiththelegalcase.
LordDerbyhadinthisspeechthegoodtastealtogethertoforbearfromhishabitualwaggishness,andthustogivehisargumentastrictlyjudicialcharacter.Noefforts,however,onhispartwerewantedtoimpregnatehisspeechwithadeepcurrentofirony.TheEarlofDerby,thechiefofthehereditaryaristocracyofEngland,pleadingagainstthelateDoctor,nowSirJohnBowring,thepetdiscipleofBentham;
pleadingforhumanityagainsttheprofessionalhumanitarian;defendingtherealinterestsofnationsagainstthesystematicutilitarianinsistinguponapunctilioofdiplomaticetiquette;appealingtothe"voxpopulivoxdei"againstthegreatest-benefit-ofthe-greatest-numberman;thedescendantoftheconquerorspreachingpeacewhereamemberofthePeaceSocietypreachedred-hotshell;aDerbybrandingtheactsoftheBritishnavyas"miserableproceedings"and"ingloriousoperations,"whereaBowringcongratulatesituponcowardlyoutrageswhichmetwithnoresistance,upon"itsbrilliantachievements,unparalleledbravery,andsplendidunionofmilitaryskillandvalour"——
suchcontrastswerethemorekeenlysatiricalthelesstheEarlofDerbyseemedtobeawareofthem.Hehadtheadvantageofthatgreathistoricalironywhichdoesnotflowfromthewitofindividuals,butfromthehumourofsituations.ThewholeParliamentaryhistoryofEnglandhas,perhaps,neverexhibitedsuchanintellectualvictoryofthearistocratovertheparvenu.
LordDerbydeclaredattheoutsetthathe"shouldhavetorelyuponstatementsanddocumentsexclusivelyfurnishedbytheverypartieswhoseconducthewasabouttoimpugn,"andthathewascontent"toresthiscaseuponthesedocuments."NowithasbeenjustlyremarkedthatthosedocumentsaslaidbeforethepublicbytheGovernment,wouldhaveallowedthelattertoshiftthewholeresponsibilityuponitssubordinates.SomuchisthisthecasethattheattacksmadebytheparliamentaryadversariesoftheGovernmentwereexclusivelydirectedtoBowring&Co.,andcouldhavebeenendorsedbythehomeGovernmentitself,withoutatallimpairingitsownposition.IquotefromhisLordship:
"IdonotwishtosayanythingdisrespectfulofDr.Bowring.Hemaybeamanofgreatattainments;butitappearstomethatonthesubjectofhisadmissionintoCantonheispossessedwithaperfectmonomaniaHear,hear,andalaugh.IbelievehedreamsofhisentranceintoCanton.Ibelievehethinksofitthefirstthinginthemorning,thelastthingatnight,andinthemiddleofthenight,ifhehappentobeawakealaugh.Idonotbelievethathewouldconsideranysacrificetoogreat,anyinterruptionofcommercetobedeplored,anybloodshedalmosttoberegretted,whenputinthescalewiththeimmenseadvantagetobederivedfromthefactthatSirJ.BowringhadobtainedanofficialreceptionintheYamunofCantonLaughter."
NextcameLordLyndhurst:
"SirJ.Bowring,whoisadistinguishedhumanitarianaswellasplenipotentiarylaughter,himselfadmitstheregisterisvoid,andthatthelorchawasnotentitledtohoisttheEnglishflag.
Now,markwhathesays:'Thevesselhadnoprotection,buttheChinesedonotknowthis.ForGod'ssakedonotwhisperittothem.'Hear.Hepersevered,too,forhesaidineffect:WeknowtheChinesehavenotbeenguiltyofanyviolationoftreaty,butwewillnottellthemso;wewillinsistuponreparationandareturnofthementheyhaveseizedinaparticularform.Ifthemenwerenotreturnedintheform,whatwastobetheremedy?
Why,toseizeajunk-awarjunk.Ifthatwasnotsufficient,seizemoreuntilwecompelledthemtosubmit,althoughweknewtheyhadtherightontheirsideandwehadnojusticeonoursHearWasthereeverconductmoreabominable,moreflagrant,inwhich——Iwillnotsaymorefraudulent,butwhatisequaltofraudinourcountry——morefalsepretencehasbeenputforwardbyapublicmanintheserviceoftheBritishGovernment?Hear
ItisextraordinarythatSirJ.Bowringshouldthinkhehadthepowerofdeclaringwar.Icanunderstandamaninsuchapositionhavingnecessarilyapowerofcarryingondefensiveoperations,buttocarryonoffensiveoperationsuponsuchaground——uponsuchapretence——isoneofthemostextraordinaryproceedingstobefoundinthehistoryoftheworldItisquiteclearfromthepaperslaidonthetableyesterdaythatfromthefirstmomentatwhichSirJ.Bowringwasappointedtothestationhenowfills,hisambitionwastoprocurewhathispredecessorshadcompletelyfailedtoeffect——namelyanentrywithinthewallsofCantonbentonlyuponcarryingthisobjectofgainingadmissionwithinthewallsofCantonintoexecution,hehas,fornonecessarypurposewhatever,plungedthecountryintowar;andwhatistheresult?Property,tothelargeamountOf$1,500,000,belongingtoBritishsubjects,isnowimpoundedinthecityofCanton,andinadditiontothatourfactoriesareburnedtotheground,andallthisisonlyowingtothemischievouspolicyofoneofthemostmischievousofmen——Butman,proudman,Drestinalittlebriefauthority,Mostignorantofwhathe'smostassured,Thisglassyessence,likeanangryape,PlayssuchfantastictricksbeforehighheavenAsmaketheangelsweep."
Andlastly,LordGrey:
"IfyourLordships,willrefertothepapers,youwillfindthatwhenSirJohnBowringappliedforaninterviewwithCommissionerYeh,theCommissionerwasreadytomeethim,butheappointedforthatpurposethehouseofthemerchantHowqua,withoutthecity
SirJohnBowring'sdignitywouldnotallowhimtogoanywherebuttotheofficialresidenceoftheCommissionerIexpect,ifnootherresult,atleastthegoodresultfromtheadoptionoftheresolution——theinstantrecallofSirJ.Bowring."
SirJ.BowringmetwithsimilartreatmentatthehandsoftheCommons,andMr.Cobdenevenopenedhisspeechwithasolemnrepudiationofhis"friendoftwentyyears'standing."TheliteralquotationsfromthespeechesofLordsDerby,LyndhurstandGreyprovethat,toparrytheattack,LordPalmerston'sAdministrationhadonlytodropSirJ.
Bowringinsteadofidentifyingitselfwiththat"distinguishedhumanitarian."Thatitowedthisfacilityofescapeneithertotheindulgencenorthetacticsofhisadversaries,butexclusivelytothepaperslaidbeforeParliament,willbecomeevidentfromtheslightestglanceatthepapersthemselvesaswellasthedebatesfoundeduponthem.
CanthereremainanydoubtastoSirJ.Bowring'sCCmonomania"withrespecttohisentranceintoCanton?Itisnotprovedthatthatindividual,astheLondonTimessays,"hastakenacourseentirelyoutofhisownhead,withouteitheradvicefromhissuperiorsathomeoranyreferencetotheirpolitics?"Why,then,shouldLordPalmerston,atamomentwhenhisGovernmentistottering,whenhiswayisbesetwithdifficultiesofallsorts——financialdifficulties,Persianwardifficulties,secret-treatydifficulties,electoralreformdifficulties,coalitiondifficulties——whenheisconsciousthattheeyesoftheHouseare"uponhimmoreearnestlybutlessadmiringlythaneverbefore,"whyshouldhesingleoutjustthatmomenttoexhibit,forthefirsttimeinhispoliticallife,anunflinchingfidelitytoanotherman——andtoasubaltern,too——atthehazardofnotonlyimpairingstillmorehisownposition,butofcompletelybreakingitup?WhyshouldhepushhisnewfangledenthusiasmtosuchapointastoofferhimselfastheexpiatorysacrificeforthesinsofaDr.Bowring?OfcoursenomaninhissensesthinksthenobleViscountcapableofanysuchromanticaberrations.ThelineofpolicyhehasfollowedupinthisChinesedifficultyaffordsconclusiveevidenceofthedefectivecharacterofthepapershehaslaidbeforeParliament.
ApartfrompublishedpaperstheremustexistsecretpapersandsecretinstructionswhichwouldgofartoshowthatifDr.Bowringwaspossessedofthe"monomania"ofenteringintoCanton,therestoodbehindhimthecool-headedchiefofWhitehallworkinguponhismonomaniaanddrivingit,forpurposesofhisown,fromthestateoflatentwarmthintothatofconsumingfire.
DEFEATOFTHEPALMERSTONMINISTRYNewYorkDailyTribuneMarch25,1857
byKARLMARX
Afterhavingragedforfournights,theChinesedebatessubsidedatlastinavoteofcensurepassedbytheHouseofCommonsonthePalmerstonMinistry.Palmerstonretortstothecensurebya"penaldissolution."HepunishestheCommonsbysendingthemhome.
Theimmenseexcitementprevailingonthelastnightofthedebates,withinthewallsoftheHouseaswellasamongthemasseswhohadgatheredintheadjoiningstreets,wasduenotonlytothegreatnessoftheinterestsatstake,butstillmoretothecharacterofthepartyontrial.Palmerston'sadministrationwasnotthatofanordinaryCabinet.Itwasadictatorship.SincethecommencementofthewarwithRussia,Parliamenthadalmostabdicateditsconstitutionalfunctions;norhadit,aftertheconclusionofpeace,everdaredtoreassertthem.Byagradualandalmostimperceptibledeclension,ithadreachedthepositionofaCorpsLegislatif,distinguishedfromthegenuine,Bonapartisharticlebyfalsepretencesandhighsoundingpretensionsonly.ThemereformationoftheCoalitionCabinetdenotedthefactthattheoldparties,onthefrictionofwhichthemovementoftheParliamentarymachinedepends,hadbecomeextinct.Thisimpotenceofparties,firstexpressedbytheCoalitionCabinet,thewarhelpedtoincarnateintheomnipotenceofasingleindividual,who,duringhalfacenturyofpoliticallife,hadneverbelongedtoanyparty,butalwaysusedallparties.IfthewarwithRussiahadnotintervened,theveryexhaustionoftheoldofficialpartieswouldhaveledtotransformation.NewlifewouldhavebeenpouredintotheParliamentarybodybytheinfusionofnewblood,bytheadmissiontopoliticalrightsofatleastsomefractionsofthemassesofthepeoplewhoarestilldeprivedofvotesandrepresentatives.Thewarcutshortthisnaturalprocess.PreventingtheneutralizationofoldParliamentaryantagonismsfromturningtothebenefitofthemasses,thewarturnedittotheexclusiveprofitofasingleman.InsteadofthepoliticalemancipationoftheBritishpeople,wehavehadthedictatorshipofPalmerston.Warwasthepowerfulenginebywhichthisresultwasbroughtabout,andwarwastheonlymeansofinsuringit.WarhadthereforebecomethevitalconditionofPalmerston'sdictatorship.TheRussianwarwasmorepopularwiththeBritishpeoplethantheParispeace.Why,then,didtheBritishAchilles,underwhoseauspicestheRedandisgraceandtheKarssurrenderhadoccurred,notimprovethisopportunity?Evidentlybecausethealternativelaybeyondhiscontrol.
HencehisParistreaty,backedbyhismisunderstandingswiththeUnitedStates,hisexpeditiontoNaples,hisostensiblesquabbleswithBonaparte,hisPersianinvasion,andhisChinesemassacres.
Inpassingavoteofcensureuponthelatter,theHouseofCommonscutoffthemeansofhisusurpedpower.Itsvotewas,therefore,notasimpleParliamentaryvote,butarebellionaforcibleattemptattheresumptionoftheconstitutionalattributesofParliament.ThiswasthefeelingwhichpervadedtheHouse,andwhatevermayhavebeenthepeculiarmotivesactuatingtheseveralfractionsoftheheterogeneousmajority——composedofDerbyites,Peelites,Manchestermen,Russellites,andso-calledIndependents——allofthemweresincereinassertingthatitwasnovulgaranti-Ministerialconspiracywhichunitedtheminthesamelobby.Such,however,wasthegistofPalmerston'sdefence.Hecoveredtheweaknessofhiscasebyanargumenturnadmisericordiam,bypresentinghimselfasthevictimofanunprincipledconspiracy.NothingcouldbemorehappythanMr.
Disraeli'srebukeofthisplea,socommontoOldBaileyprisoners.
"TheFirstMinister,"hesaid,"isofallmenthemanwhocannotbearacoalition.Why,sir,heisthearch-typeofpoliticalcoalitionswithoutavowedprinciples.SeehowhisGovernmentisformed.ItwasonlylastyearthateverymemberofhisCabinetinthisHousesupportedabillintroduced,Ithink,byalatecolleague.ItwasopposedintheotherHousebyamemberoftheGovernmentwho,toexcusehisapparentinconsistency,boldlydeclaredthatwhenhetookofficetheFirstMinisterrequirednopledgefromhimonanysubjectwhateverLaughter.YetthenobleLordisalarmedandshockedatthisunprincipledcombination!ThenobleLordcannotbearcoalitions!ThenobleLordhasactedonlywiththoseamongwhomhewasbornandbredinpoliticsCheersandlaughter.ThatinfantHerculespointingatLordPalmerstonwastakenoutoftheWhigcradle,andhowconsistenthasbeenhispoliticallife!Renewedlaughter.Lookingbackuponthelasthalfcentury,duringwhichhehasprofessedalmosteveryprinciple,andconnectedhimselfwithalmosteveryparty,thenobleLordhasraisedawarningvoiceto-nightagainstcoalitions,becausehefearsthatamajorityoftheHouseofCommons,rankinginitsnumberssomeofthemosteminentmembersoftheHouse-menwhohavebeencolleaguesofthenobleLord-maynotapproveapolicywithrespecttoChinawhichhasbeguninoutrage,andwhich,ifpursued,willendinruin.Loudcheers.
That,sir,isthepositionofthenobleLord.AndwhatdefenceofthatpolicyhavewehadfromthenobleLord?HashelaiddownasingleprincipleonwhichourrelationswithChinaoughttodepend?Hasheenumeratedasolitarypoliticalmaximwhichshouldguideusinthismomentofperilandperplexity?Onthecontrary,hehascoveredaweakandshamblingcasebysaying——what?——
thatheisthevictimofaconspiracy.Cheersandlaughter.Hedidnotenterintoanymanlyorstatesmanlikedefenceofhisconduct.HereproducedpettyobservationsmadeinthecourseofthedebatewhichIthoughtreallyhadbecomeexhaustedandobsolete,andthenheturnedroundandsaidthatthewholewasaconspiracy!Accustomedtomajoritieswhichhavebeenobtainedwithouttheassertionofasingleprinciple,whichhave,indeed,beentheconsequenceofanoccasionalposition,andwhichhave,infact,originatedinthenobleLord'ssittingonthatbenchwithoutthenecessityofexpressinganopinionuponanysubject,foreignordomestic,thatcaninteresttheheartofthecountryorinfluencetheopinionofthenation,thenobleLordwillatlastfindthatthetimehascomewhen,ifhebeastatesman,hemusthaveapolicycheers;andthatitwillnotdo,theinstantthattheblunderingofhisCabinetisdetected,andeverymanaccustomedtoinfluencetheopinionoftheHouseunitesincondemningit,tocomplaintothecountrythatheisthevictimofaconspiracy."Cheers.
Itwould,however,bequiteamistaketopresumethatthedebateswereinterestingbecausesuchpassionateinterestshingeduponthem.Therewasonenight'sdebateafteranothernight'sdebate,andstillnodivision.Duringthegreaterpartofthebattlethevoicesofthegladiatorsweredrownedinthehumandhubbubofprivateconversation.
Nightafternighttheplacemenspokeagainsttimetowinanothertwenty-fourhoursforintrigueandundergroundaction.ThefirstnightMr.Cobdenmadeacleverspeech.SodidBulwerandLordJohnRussell;
buttheAttorney-Generalwascertainlyrightintellingthemthat"hecouldnotforonemomentcomparetheirdeliberationsortheirargumentsonsuchasubjectasthiswiththeargumentsthathadbeendeliveredinanotherplace."Thesecondnightwasencumberedbytheheavyspecialpleadingsoftheattorneysonbothsides,theLord-Advocate,Mr.
WhitesideandtheAttorney-General.SirJamesGraham,indeed,madeanattempttoraisethedebate,buthefailed.Whenthisman,thevirtualmurdereroftheBandiera,sanctimoniouslyexclaimedthat"hewouldwashhishandsoftheinnocentbloodwhichhadbeenshed,"ahalf-suppressedironicallaughre-echoedhispathos.Thethirdnightwasstillduller.
TherewasSirF.Thesiger,theAttorney-Generalinspe,answeringtheAttorney-Generalinre,andSergeantSheeendeavouringtoanswerSirF.
Thesiger.TherewastheagriculturaleloquenceofSirJohnPakington.
TherewasGeneralWilliamsofKars,listenedtowithsilenceonlyforafewminutes,butafterthosefewminutesspontaneouslydroppedbytheHouseandfullyunderstoodnottobethemantheyhadtakenhimfor.
Therewas,lastly,SirSidneyHerbert.ThiselegantscionofPeelitestatesmanshipmadeaspeechwhichwas,indeed,terse,pointed,antithetical,butgirdingattheargumentsoftheplacemenratherthanproducingnewargumentsofhisown.ButthelastnightthedebaterosetoaheightcompatiblewiththenaturalmeasureoftheCommons.
Roebuck,Gladstone,PalmetstonandDisraeliweregreat,eachinhisownway.
Thedifficultpointwastogetridofthestalking-horseofthedebate,SirJ.Bowring,andtobringhomethequestiontoLordPalmerstonhimself,bymakinghimpersonallyresponsibleforthe"massacreoftheinnocents."Thiswasatlastdone.AstheimpendinggeneralelectioninEnglandwillinthemainrevolveuponthispoint,itmaynotbeamisstocondense,inasshortacompassaspossible,theresultsofthediscussion.ThedayafterthedefeatoftheMinistry,andthedaybeforetheministerialannouncementofthedissolutionoftheHouseofCommons,theLondonTimesventureduponthefollowingassertions:
"thenationwillberatheratalosstoknowtheprecisequestiontobeansweredHasLordPalmerston'sCabinetforfeitedtheconfidenceofthePeopleonaccountofaseriesofactscommitted'ontheothersideoftheworldsixweeksbeforetheywerehereevenheardof,andbypublicservantsappointedunderaformeradministration?"
ItwasatChristmaswhenMinistersheardofthematter,andtheywereatthattimeasignorantaseverybodyelse.
"Infact,hadthesceneofthenarrativebeenthemoon,orhaditbeenachapterfromtheArabianNights,thepresentCabinetcouldnothavelesstodowithitIsLordPalmerston'sadministrationtobecondemnedanddisplacedforwhatitneverdidandcouldnotdo,forwhatitonlyheardofwheneverybodyelseheardofit,forwhatwasdonebymenwhomitdidnotappointandwithwhomithasnot,asyet,beenabletoholdanycommunication?"
TothisimpudentrodomontadeofaFaFerwhichhasallalongvindicatedtheCantonmassacreasasupremestrokeofPalmerstoniandiplomacy,wecanopposeafewfactspainfullyelicitedduringaprotracteddebate,andnotoncecontrovertedbyPalmerstonorhissubordinates.In1847,whenattheheadoftheForeignOffice,LordPalmerston'sfirstdispatchontheadmissionoftheBritishHong-KongauthoritiesintoCantonwascouchedinmenacingterms.However,hisardoursweredampedbyEarlGrey,hiscolleague,thethenSecretaryfortheColonies,whosentoutamostperemptoryprohibitiontotheofficerscommandingthenavalforces,notonlyatHongKong,butatCeylon,orderingthem,undernocircumstances,toallowanyoffensivemovementagainsttheChinesewithoutexpressauthorityfromEngland.Onthe18thAugust,1849,however,shortlybeforehisdismissalfromtheRussellCabinet,LordPalmerstonwrotethefollowingdispatchtotheBritishPlenipotentiaryatHongKong:
"LetnotthegreatofficersofCantonnortheGovernmentofPekindeceivethemselvesTheforbearancewhichtheBritishGovernmenthashithertodisplayed,arisesnotfromasenseofweakness,butfromconsciousnessofsuperiorstrength.TheBritishGovernmentwellknowsthatifoccasionrequiredit,BritishmilitaryforcewouldbeabletodestroythetownofCanton,notleavingonesinglehousestanding,andcouldthusinflictthemostsignalchastisementuponthepeopleofthatcity."
ThusthebombardmentofCantonoccurringin1856,underLordPalmerstonasPremier,wasforeshadowedin1849bythelastmissivesenttoHong-KongbyLordPalmerston,asForeignSecretaryoftheRussellCabinet.AlltheinterveninGovernmentshaverefusedtoallowanyrelaxationoftheprohibitionputupontheBritishrepresentativesatHong-KongagainstpressingtheiradmissionintoCanton.ThiswasthecasewiththeEarlofGranvilleundertheRussellMinistry,theEarlofMalmesburyundertheDerbyMinistry,andtheDukeofNewcastleundertheAberdeenMinistry.Atlast,in1852,Dr.Bowring,tillthenConsulatCanton,wasappointedPlenipotentiary.Hisappointment,asMr.
Gladstonestates,wasmadebyLordClarendon,Palmerston'stool,withouttheknowledgeorconsentoftheAberdeenCabinct.WhenBowringfirstmootedthequestionnowatissue,Clarendon,inadispatchdatedJuly5,1854,toldhimthathewasright,butthatheshouldwaittilltherewerenavalforcesavailableforhispurpose.EnglandwasthenatwarwithRussia.WhenthequestionoftheArrowarose,Bowringhadjustheardthatpeacehadbeenestablished,andinfactnavaforceswerebeingsentouttohim.ThenthequarrelwithYehwaspicked.OntheiothofJanuary,afterhavingreceivedanaccountofallthathadpassed,ClarendoninformedBowringthat"HerMajesty'sGovernmententirelyapprovedthecoursewhichhasbeenadoptedbySirM.Seymourandyourself."Thisapprobation,couchedinthesefewwords,wasnotaccompaniedbyanyfurtherinstructions.Onthecontrary,Mr.Hammond,writingtotheSecretaryoftheAdmiralty,wasdirectedbyLordClarendontoexpresstoAdmiralSeymourtheGovernment'sadmirationof"themoderationwithwhichhehadacted,andtherespectwhichhehadshownforthelivesandpropertiesoftheChinese."
Therecan,then,existnodoubtthattheChinesemassacrewasplannedbyLordPalmerstonhimself.UnderwhatcolourshenowhopestorallytheelectorsoftheUnitedKingdomisaquestionwhichIhopeyouwillallowmetoanswerinanotherletter,asthishasalreadyexceededtheproperlimits.
RUSSIAANDCHINANewYorkDailyTribuneApril7,1857
byKARLMARX
InthematteroftradeandintercoursewithChina,ofwhichLordPalmerstonandLouisNapoleonhaveundertakentheextensionbyforce,nolittlejealousyisevidentlyfeltofthepositionoccupiedbyRussia.Indeed,itisquitepossiblethatwithoutanyexpenditureofmoneyorexertionofmilitaryforceRussiamaygainmoreintheend,asaconsequenceofthependingquarrelwiththeChinese,thaneitherofthebelligerentnations.
TherelationsofRussiatotheChineseEmpirearealtogetherpeculiar.
WhiletheEnglishandourselves——forinthematterofthependinghostilitiestheFrencharebutlittlemorethanamateurs,astheyreallyhavenotradewithChina——arenotallowedtheprivilegeofadirectcommunicationevenwiththeViceroyofCanton,theRussiansenjoytheadvantageofmaintaininganEmbassyatPeking.Itissaid,indeed,thatthisadvantageispurchasedonlybysubmittingtoallowRussiatobereckonedattheCelestialCourtasoneofthetributarydependenciesoftheChineseEmpire.NeverthelessitenablesRussiandiplomacy,asinEurope,toestablishaninfluenceforitselfinChinawhichisbynomeanslimitedtopurelydiplomaticoperations.BeingexcludedfiomthemaritimetradewithChina,theRussiansarefreefromanyinterestorinvolvementinpastorpendingdisputesonthatsubject;andtheyalsoescapethatantipathywithwhichfromtimeimmemorialtheChinesehaveregardedallforeignersapproachingtheircountrybysea,confoundingthem,andnotentirelywithoutreason,withthepiraticaladventurersbywhomtheChinesecoastsseemevertohavebeeninfested.Butasanindemnityforthisexclusionfromthemaritimetrade,theRussiansen.oyaninlandandoverlandtradepeculiartothemselves,andinwhichitseemsimpossibleforthemtohaveanyrival.Thistraffic,regulatedbyatreatymadein1787,duringthereignofCatharineH.,hasforitsprincipal,ifnotindeeditssoleseatofoperations,Kiachta,situateonthefrontiersofsouthernSiberiaandofChineseTartary,onatributaryoftheLakeBaikal,andaboutahundredmilessouthofthecityofIrkutsk.Thistrade,conductedatasortofannualfair,ismanagedbytwelvefactors,ofwhomsixareRussiansandsixChinese,whomeetatKiachta,andfixtherates——sincethetradeisentirelybybarter——atwhichthemerchandisesuppliedbyeitherpartyshallbeexchanged.Theprincipalarticlesoftradeare,onthepartoftheChinese,tea,andonthepartoftheRussians,cottonandwoollencloths.Thistrade,oflateyears,seemstohaveattainedaconsiderableincrease.Thequantity.ofteasoldtotheRussiansatKiachta,didnot,tenortwelveyearsago,exceedanaverageoffortythousandchests;butin1852itamountedtoahundredandseventy-fivethousandchests,ofwhichthelargerpartwasofthatsuperiorqualitywellknowntocontinentalconsumersascaravantea,incontradistinctionfromtheinferiorarticleimportedbysea.TheotherarticlessoldbytheChineseweresomesmallquantitiesofsugar,cotton,rawsilkandsilkgoods,butalltoverylimitedamounts.TheRussianspaidaboutequallyincottonandwoollengoods,withtheadditionofsmallquantitiesofRussianleather,wroughtmetals,fursandevenopium.Thewholeamountofgoodsboughtandsold-whichsecminthepublishedaccountstobestatedatverymoderateprices-reachedthelargesumofupwardoffifteenmillionsofdollars.In1857owingtotheinternaltroublesofChinaandtheoccupationoftheroadfromtheteaprovincesbybandsofmaraudingrebels,thequantityofteasenttoKiachtafellofftofiftythousandchests,andthewholevalueofthetradeofthatyearwasbutaboutsixmillionsofdollars.Inthetwofollowingyears,however,thiscommercerevived,andtheteasenttoKiachtaforthefairOf1855
didnotfallshortofahundredandtwelvethousandchests.
Inconsequenceoftheincreaseofthistrade,Kiachta,whichissituatedwithintheRussianfrontier,fromamerefortandfair-ground,hasgrownupintoaconsiderablecity.Ithasbeenselectedasthecapitalofthatpartofthefrontierregion,andistobedignifiedbyhavingamilitarycommandantandacivilgovernor.AtthesametimeadirectandregularpostalcommunicationforthetransmissionofofficialdispatcheshaslatelybeenestablishedbetweenKiachtaandPeking,whichisdistantfromitaboutninehundredmiles.
Itisevidentthat,shouldthependinghostilitiesresultinsuppressionofthemaritimetrade,Europemightreceiveitentiresupplyofteabythisroute.Indeed,itissuggestedthaevenwiththemaritimetradeopen,Russia,may,uponthecompletionofhersystemofrailroads,becomeapowerfulcompetitorwiththemaritimenationsforsupplyingthEuropeanmarketswithtea.TheserailroadswillsupplydirectcommunicationbetweentheportsofCronstadtandLibauandtheancientcityofNijniNovgorodintheinteriorofRussia,theresidenceofthemerchantsbywhomthetradeatKiachtaiscarriedon.ThesupplyofEuropewithteabythisoverlandrouteiscertainlymoreprobablethantheemploymentofourprojectedPacificRailroadforthatpurposeSilk,too,theotherchiefexportofChina,isanarticleofsucsmallbulkincomparisontoitscost,astomakeitstransportstionbylandbynomeansimpossible;whilethisChinestrafficopensanoutletforRussianmanufactures,suchasitcannotelsewhereattain.
Wemayobserve,however,thattheeffortsofRussiaarebynomeanslimitedtothedevelopmentofthisinlandtrade.ItisseveralyearssinceshetookpossessionofthebanksofthRiverAmur,thenativecountryofthepresentrulingraceinChina.Hereffortsinthisdirectionreceivedsomecheckaninterruptionduringthelatewar,butwilldoubtlessbereviveandpushedwithenergy.ShehaspossessionoftheKurilIslandsandtheneighbouringcoastsofKamchatka.Alreadyshemaintainsafleetinthoseseas,andwilldoubtlessimproveanyopportunitythatmayoffertoobtainaparticipationinthemaritimetradewithChina.This,however,isoflittleconsequencetohercomparedwiththeextensionofthatoverlandtradeofwhichshepossessesthemonopoly.
WHOSEATROCITIES?NewYorkDailyTribuneApril10,1857
byKARLMARX
AFEWYEARSsince,whenthefrightfulsystemoftortureinIndiawasexposedinParliament,SirJamesHogg,oneoftheDirectorsoftheMostHonourableEastIndiaCompany,boldlyassertedthatthestatementsmadewereunfounded.Subsequentinvestigation,however,provedthemtobebaseduponfactswhichshouldhavebeenwellknowntotheDirectors,andSirJameshadlefthimtoadmiteither"wilfulignorance"or"criminalknowledge"ofthehorriblechargelaidattheCompany'sdoors.LordPalmerston,thepresentPremierofEngland,andtheEarlofClarendon,theMinisterofForeignAffairs,seemjustnowtobeplacedinasimilarunenviableposition.AtthelateLordMayor'sbanquet,thePremiersaid,inhisspeech,whileattemptingtojustifytheatrocitiescommittedupontheChinese:
"IftheGovernmenthad,inthiscase,approvedofunjustifiableproceedings,theyhadundoubtedlyfollowedacoursewhichdeservedtoincurthecensureofParliamentandofthecountry.Wewerepersuaded,however,onthecontrary,thattheseproceedingswerenecessaryandvital.Wefeltthatagreatwronghadbeeninflictedonourcountry.Wefeltthatourfellowcountrymeninadistantpartoftheglobehadbeenexposedtoaseriesofinsults,outragesandatrocitieswhichcouldnotbepassedoverinsilenceCheers.Wefeltthatthetreatyrightsofthiscountryhadbeenbroken,andthatthoselocallychargedwiththedefenceofourinterestsinthatquarteroftheworldwerenotonlyjustified,butobligedtoresentthoseoutrages,sofarasthepowerintheirhandswouldenablethemtodoso.Wefeltthatweshouldbebetrayingthetrustwhichthecitizensofthecountryhadreposedinusifwehadnotapprovedoftheproceedingswhichwethoughttoberight,andwhichwe,ifplacedinthesamecircumstances,shouldhavedeemeditourdutytohavepursuedCheers."
Now,howevermuchthepeopleofEnglandandtheworldatlargemaybedeceivedbysuchplausiblestatements,hisLordshiphimselfcertainlydoesnotbelievethemtobetrue,ofifhedoes,hehasbetrayedawilfulignorancealmostasunjustifiableas"criminalknowledge."EversincethefirstreportreachedusofEnglishhostilitiesinChina,theGovernmentjournalsofEnglandandaportionoftheAmericanPresshavebeenheapingwholesaledenunciationsupontheChinese——sweepingchargesofviolationoftreatyobligations——insultstotheEnglishflag——degradationofforeignersresidingontheirsoil,andthelike;
yetnotonesingledistinctchargehasbeenmadeorasinglefactinstancedinsupportofthesedenunciations,savethecaseofthelorchaArrow,and,withrespecttothiscase,thecircumstanceshavebeensomisrepresentedandglossedoverbyParliamentaryrhetoricasutterlytomisleadthosewhoreallydesiretounderstandthemeritsofthequestion.
ThelorchaArrowwasasmallChinesevessel,mannedbyChinese,butemployedbysomeEnglishmen.AlicencetocarrytheEnglishflaghadbeentemporarilygrantedtoher,whichlicencehadexpiredpriortothealleged"insult".Sheissaidtohavebeenusedtosmugglesalt,andhadonboardofhersomeverybadcharacters——Chinesepiratesandsmugglers——whom,beingoldoffendersagainstthelaws,theauthoritieshadlongbeentryingtoarrest.WhilelyingatanchorinfrontofCanton——withsailsfurled,andnoflagwhateverdisplayed——
thepolicebecameawareofthepresenceonboardoftheseoffenders,andarrestedthem——preciselysuchanactaswouldhavetakenplaceherehadthepolicealongourwharvesknownthatriver-thievesandsmugglersweresecretedinanativeorforeignvesselnearby.But,asthisarrestinterferedwiththebusinessoftheowners,thecaptainwenttotheEnglishConsulandcomplained.TheConsul,ayoungmanrecentlyappointed,and,asweareinformed,apersonofaquickandirritabledisposition,rushesonboardinpropriapersona,getsintoanexcitedparleywiththepolice,whohaveonlydischargedtheirsimpleduty,andconsequentlyfailsinobtainingsatisfaction.ThenceherushesbacktotheConsulate,writesanimperativedemandforrestitutionandapologytotheGovernor-GeneraloftheKwangtungProvince,andanotetoSirJohnBowringandAdmiralSeymouratHongKong,representingthatheandhiscountry'sflaghavebeeninsultedbeyondendurance,andintimatinginprettybroadtermsthatnowisthetimeforademonstrationagainstCanton,suchashadlongbeenwaitedfor.