PREFACE
InwritingthisbooktheauthorhasaimedfirsttopresentinreadableformthemainfactsaboutthegeographicalenvironmentofAmericanhistory。Manyimportantfactshavebeenomittedorhavebeentouchedupononlylightlybecausetheyaregenerallyfamiliar。Ontheotherhand，specialstresshasbeenlaidoncertainbroadphasesofgeographywhicharecomparativelyunfamiliar。OneoftheseisthesimilarityofformbetweentheOldWorldandtheNew，andbetweenNorthandSouthAmerica;
anotheristhedistributionofindigenoustypesofvegetationinNorthAmerica;andathirdistherelationofclimatetohealthandenergy。Inadditiontothesesubjects，theinfluenceofgeographicalconditionsuponthelifeoftheprimitiveIndianshasbeenemphasized。Thisfactorisespeciallyimportantbecausepeoplewithoutirontoolsandbeastsofburden，andwithoutanycerealcropsexceptcorn，mustrespondtotheirenvironmentverydifferentlyfromcivilizedpeopleoftoday。Limitsofspaceandthedesiretomakethisbookreadablehaveledtotheomissionofthedetailedproofofsomeoftheconclusionsheresetforth。Thespecialstudentwillrecognizesuchcasesandwillnotjudgethemuntilhehasreadtheauthor’sfullerstatementselsewhere。Thegeneralreader，forwhomthisbookisdesigned，willbethankfulfortheomissionofsuchpurelytechnicaldetails。
CONTENTS
I。THEAPPROACHESTOAMERICA
II。THEFORMOFTHECONTINENT
III。THEGEOGRAPHICPROVINCESOFNORTHAMERICA
IV。THEGARMENTOFVEGETATION
V。THEREDMANINAMERICA
BIBLIOGRAPHICALNOTE
THEREDMAN’SCONTINENT
CHAPTERI。THEAPPROACHESTOAMERICA
AcrossthetwilightlawnatHamptonInstitutestragglesagroupofsturdyyoungmenwithcopper-huedcomplexions。Theirdayhasbeendevotedtofarming，carpentry，blacksmithing，orsomeothertrade。Theireveningwillbegiventostudy。ThosesilentdignifiedIndianswithstraightblackhairandbroad，strongfeaturesaretrainingtheirhandsandmindsinthehopethatsomedaytheymaystandbesidethewhitemanasequals。Behindthem，laughinggaylyandchatteringasifwithoutacareintheworld，comesalargergroupofkinky-haired，thick-lippedyouthswithblackskinsandAfricanfeatures。They，too，havebeenworkingwiththehandstotrainthemind。Thosetwodiverseraces，redandblack，sitdowntogetherinaclassroom，andtothemcomesanotherrace。Thefacesthatwereexpressionlessormerelymirthfulaminuteagolightupwithseriousinterestastheteachercomesintotheroom。Shestandsthereaslender，golden-haired，blue-eyedAnglo-Saxongirljustoutofcollege——amerechildcomparedwiththescoreofswarthy，stalwartmenasoldasherselfwhositbeforeher。Hermobilefeaturesseemtomirrorahundredthoughtswhiletheirimpassivefacesaremovedbyonlyone。Herquickspeechalmosttripsinitseagernessnottowastetheshort，precioushour。Onlyastrongeffortholdsherbackwhileshewaitsfortheslowanswersoftheyoungmenwhomshedrillsoverandoveragaininsimpleproblemsofarithmetic。
TheclassandtheteacherareanepitomeofAmericanhistory。
Theyaremorethanthat。Theyareanepitomeofallhistory。
Historyinitsbroadestaspectisarecordofman’smigrationsfromoneenvironmenttoanother。Americaisthelastgreatgoalofthesemigrations。Hewhowouldunderstanditshistorymustknowitsmountainsandplains，itsclimate，itsproducts，anditsrelationtotheseaandtootherpartsoftheworld。Hemustknowmorethanthis，however，forhemustappreciatehowvariousenvironmentsalterman’senergyandcapacityandgivehischaracteraslantinonedirectionoranother。Hemustalsoknowthepathsbywhichtheinhabitantshavereachedtheirpresenthomes，fortheinfluenceofformerenvironmentsuponthemmaybemoreimportantthantheirimmediatesurroundings。Infact，thehistoryofNorthAmericahasbeenperhapsmoreprofoundlyinfluencedbyman’sinheritancefromhispasthomesthanbythephysicalfeaturesofhispresenthome。ItisindeedofvastimportancethattradecanmovefreelythroughsuchnaturalchannelsasNewYorkHarbor，theMohawkValley，andtheGreatLakes。ItisequallyimportantthattheeasternhighlandsoftheUnitedStatesarefulloftheworld’sfinestcoal，whilethecentralplainsraisesomeoftheworld’smostlavishcrops。Yetitisprobablyevenmoreimportantthatbecauseofhisinheritancefromaremoteancestralenvironmentmanisenergetic，inventive，andlong-livedincertainpartsoftheAmericancontinent，whileelsewherehehasnotthestrengthandmentalvigortomaintaineventhedegreeofcivilizationtowhichheseemstohaverisen。
ThreestreamsofmigrationhavemainlydeterminedthehistoryofAmerica。OnewasanancientandcomparativelyinsignificantstreamfromAsia。ItbroughttheIndiantothetwogreatcontinentswhichthewhitemanhasnowpracticallywrestedfromhim。AsecondandlaterstreamwasthegreattidewhichrolledinfromEurope。ItisasdifferentfromtheotherasWestisfromEast。Thusfarithasnotwhollyobliteratedthenativepeople，forbetweenthesouthernborderoftheUnitedStatesontheonehand，andthenorthernbordersofArgentina，Chile，andUruguayontheother，thevastproportionofthebloodisstillIndian。
TheEuropeantidemayintimedominateeventhisregion，butforcenturiestocomethepoor，disinheritedIndianswillcontinuetoformthebulkofthepopulation。ThethirdstreamflowedfromAfricaandwasasdifferentfromeitheroftheothersasSouthisfromNorth。
ThedifferencesbetweenoneandanotherofthesethreestreamsofpopulationandtheantagonismswhichtheyhaveinvolvedhavegreatlycoloredAmericanhistory。TheIndian，theEuropean，andtheNegroapparentlydiffernotonlyinoutwardappearancebutinthemuchmoreimportantmatterofmentality。AccordingtoBrinton*theaveragebraincapacityofParisians，includingadultsofbothsexes，is1448cubiccentimeters。ThatoftheAmericanIndianis1376，andthatoftheNegro1344cubiccentimeters。Withthisdifferenceinsizethereappearstobeacorrespondingdifferenceinfunction。ThusfarnotenoughaccuratetestshavebeenmadeuponIndianstoenableustodrawreliableconclusions。TheNegro，however，hasbeentestedonanextensivescale。Theresultsseemtoleavelittledoubtthattherearerealandmeasurabledifferencesinthementalpowersofraces，justasweknowtobethecaseamongindividuals。ThematterissoimportantthatwemaywelldwellonitamomentbeforeturningtothecauseofthedifferencesinthethreestreamsofAmericanimmigrants。Ifthereisameasurabledifferencebetweentheinherentbrainpowerofthewhiteraceandtheblack，itispracticallycertainthattherearealsomeasurabledifferencesbetweenthewhiteandthered。
*D。G。Brinton。"TheAmericanRace。"
Numeroustestsindicatethatinthelowermentalpowersthereisnogreatdifferencebetweentheblackandthewhite。Inphysicalreactionsoneisasquickastheother。Inthecapacityofthesensesandinthepowertoperceiveandtodiscriminatebetweendifferentkindsofobjectsthereisalsopracticalequality。Whenitcomestothehigherfaculties，however，suchasjudgment，inventiveness，andthepoweroforganization，adifferencebeginstobeapparent。These，asFerguson*says，arethetraitsthat"dividemankindintotheableandthemediocre，thebrilliantandthedull，andtheydeterminetheprogressofcivilizationmoredirectlythandothesimplefundamentalpowerswhichmanhasincommonwiththeloweranimals。"Onthebasisofthemostexhaustivestudyyetmade，Fergusonbelievesthat，apartfromalldifferencesduetohometrainingandenvironment，theaverageintellectualpowerofthecoloredpeopleofthiscountryisonlyaboutthree-fourthsasgreatasthatofwhitepersonsofthesameamountoftraining。Hebelievesitprobable，indeed，thatthisestimateistoohighratherthantoolow。AstotheIndian，hispastachievementsandpresentconditionindicatethatintellectuallyhestandsbetweenthewhitemanandtheNegroinaboutthepositionthatwouldbeexpectedfromthecapacityofhisbrain。Ifthisisso，thementaldifferencesinthethreestreamsofmigrationtoAmericaarefullyasgreatastheoutwardandmanifestphysicaldifferencesandfarmoreimportant。
*G。O。Ferguson。"ThePsychologyoftheNegro，"NewYork，1916。
WhydoestheAmericanIndiandifferfromtheNegro，andtheEuropeanfromboth？Thisisaquestiononwhichwecanonlyspeculate。ButweshallfinditprofitabletostudythepathsbywhichthesediverseracesfoundtheirwaytoAmericafromman’sprimevalhome。Accordingtothenowalmostuniversallyacceptedtheory，alltheracesofmankindhadacommonorigin。Butwheredidmanmakethechangefromafour-handed，tree-dwellinglittleapetoamuchlarger，uprightcreaturewithtwohandsandtwofeet？Itisamistaketosupposethatbecauseheishairlesshemusthaveoriginatedinawarmclimate。Infactquitetheoppositeseemstobethecase，forapparentlyhelosthishairbecausehetooktowearingtheskinsofslainbeastsinorderthathemighthavenotonlyhisownhairbutthatofotheranimalsasaprotectionfromthecold。
Inoursearchforthestarting-placeofman’sslowmigrationtoAmericaourfirststepshouldbetoascertainwhatresponsestophysicalenvironmentarecommontoallmen。Ifwefindthatallmenliveandthrivebestundercertainclimaticconditions，itisfairtoassumethatthoseconditionsprevailedinman’soriginalhome，andthisconclusionwillenableustocastoutofthereckoningtheregionswheretheydonotprevail。Astudyoftherelationsofmillionsofdeathstoweatherconditionsindicatesthatthewhiteraceisphysicallyatitsbestwhentheaveragetemperaturefornightanddayrangesfromabout50to73degreesF。andwhentheairisneitherextremelymoistnorextremelydry。
Inadditiontotheseconditionstheremustbenotonlyseasonalchangesbutfrequentchangesfromdaytoday。Suchchangesarepossibleonlywherethereisadistinctwinterandwherestormsareoffrequentoccurrence。Thebestclimateis，therefore，onewherethetemperaturerangesfromnotmuchbelowthefreezing-pointatnightinwintertoabout80degreesF。bydayinsummer，andwherethestormswhichbringdailychangesarefrequentatallseasons。
Surprisingasitmayseem，thisstudyindicatesthatsimilarconditionsarebestforallsortsofraces。FinnsfromtheArcticCircleandItaliansofsunnySicilyhavethebesthealthandgreatestenergyunderpracticallythesameconditions;sotoowithFrenchmen，Japanese，andAmericans。Mostsurprisingofall，theAfricanblackmanintheUnitedStatesislikewiseathisbestinessentiallythesamekindofweatherthatismostfavorableforhiswhitefellow-citizens，andforFinns，Italians，andotherraces。Fortheredrace，noexactfiguresareavailable，butgeneralobservationoftheIndian’shealthandactivitysuggeststhatinthisrespectheisatonewiththerestofmankind。
Forthesourceofanycharacteristicsowidespreadanduniformasthisadaptationtoenvironmentwemustgobacktotheverybeginningofthehumanrace。Suchacharacteristicmusthavebecomefirmlyfixedinthehumanconstitutionbeforeprimitivemanbecamedividedintoraces，oratleastbeforeanyoftheraceshadlefttheiroriginalhomeandstartedontheirlongjourneytoAmerica。Onthewaytothiscontinentoneracetookonadarkreddishorbrownishhueanditshairgrewstraightandblack;anotherbecameblackskinnedandcrinkly-haired，whileathirddevelopedawhiteskinandwavyblondehair。Yetthroughoutthethousandsofyearswhichbroughtaboutthesechanges，alltheracesapparentlyretainedtheindelibleconstitutionalimpressoftheclimateoftheircommonbirthplace。Man’sphysicaladaptationtoclimateseemstobeadeep-seatedphysiologicalfactliketheuniformityofthetemperatureofthebloodinallraces。Justasachangeinthetemperatureofthebloodbringsdistresstotheindividual，soachangeofclimateapparentlybringsdistresstoarace。Againandagain，tobesure，onthewaytoAmerica，andundermanyothercircumstances，manhaspassedthroughthemostadverseclimatesandhassurvived，buthehasflourishedandwaxedstrongonlyincertainzones。
Curiouslyenoughman’sbodyandhismindappeartodifferintheirclimaticadaptations。Moreover，inthisrespecttheblackrace，andperhapsthered，appearstobediversefromthewhite。
InAmericaaninvestigationofthemarksofstudentsatWestPointandAnnapolisindicatesthatthebestmentalworkisdonewhenthetemperatureaveragesnotmuchabove40degreesF。fornightanddaytogether。TestsofschoolchildreninDenmarkpointtoasimilarconclusion。Ontheotherhand，dailytestsoftwenty-twoNegroesatHamptonInstituteforsixteenmonthssuggestthattheirmentalabilitymaybegreatestatatemperatureonlyalittlelowerthanthatwhichisbestforthemostefficientphysicalactivity。NotestsofthissorthaveeverbeenmadeuponIndians，butsuchfactsastheinventivenessoftheEskimo，theartisticdevelopmentofthepeopleofnorthernBritishColumbiaandsouthernAlaska，andtherelativelyhighcivilizationofthecoldregionsofthePeruvianplateausuggestthattheIndianinthisrespectismorelikethewhiteracethantheblack。Perhapsman’smentalpowersunderwenttheirchiefevolutionafterthevariousraceshadlefttheaboriginalhomeinwhichthephysicalcharacteristicsbecamefixed。Thustheraces，thoughalikeintheirphysicalresponsetoclimate，maypossiblybedifferentintheirmentalresponsebecausetheyhaveapproachedAmericabydifferentpaths。
BeforewecanunderstandhowmanmayhavebeenmodifiedonhiswayfromhisoriginalhometoAmerica，wemustinquireastothegeographicalsituationofthathome。Judgingbytheclimatewhichmankindnowfindsmostfavorable，thehumanracemusthaveoriginatedinthetemperateregionsofEurope，Asia，orNorthAmerica。Wearenotentirelywithoutevidencetoguidetoachoiceofoneofthethreecontinents。ThereisascarcityofindicationsofpreglacialmanintheNewWorldandanabundanceofsuchindicationsintheOld。Tobesure，severalskullsfoundinAmericahavebeensupposedtobelongtoatimebeforethelastglacialepoch。Ineverycase，however，therehasbeensomethingtothrowdoubtontheconclusion。Forinstance，somehumanbonesfoundatVeroinFloridain1915seemtobeveryold。
Certaincircumstances，however，suggestthatpossiblytheymaynotreallybelongtothelayersofgravelinwhichtheywerediscoveredbutmayhavebeeninsertedatsomelatertime。IntheOldWorld，onthecontrary，noonedoubtsthatmanyhumanskullsandotherpartsofskeletonsbelongtotheinterglacialepochprecedingthelastglacialepoch，whilesomeappeartodatefromstillmoreremoteperiods。ThereforenomatteratwhatdatemanmayhavecometoAmerica，itseemsclearthatheexistedintheOldWorldmuchearlier。ThisleavesustochoosebetweenEuropeandAsia。TheevidencepointstocentralAsiaasman’soriginalhome，forthegeneralmovementofhumanmigrationshasbeenoutwardfromthatregionandnotinward。So，too，withthegreatfamiliesofmammals，asweknowfromfossilremains。FromtheearliestgeologicaltimesthevastinteriorofAsiahasbeenthegreatmotheroftheworld，thesourcefromwhichthemostimportantfamiliesoflivingthingshavecome。
Suppose，then，thatweplaceincentralAsiatheprimitivehomeofthethin-skinned，hairlesshumanracewithitsadaptationtoahighlyvariableclimatewithtemperaturesrangingfromfreezingtoeightydegrees。Mancouldnotstaythereforever。Hewasboundtospreadtonewregions，partlybecauseofhisinnatemigratorytendencyandpartlybecauseofNature’ssternurgency。GeologistsarerapidlybecomingconvincedthatthemammalsspreadfromtheircentralAsianpointoforiginlargelybecauseofgreatvariationsinclimate。*Suchvariationshavetakenplaceonanenormousscaleduringgeologicaltimes。Theyseem，indeed，tobeoneofthemostimportantfactorsinevolution。Sinceearlymanlivedthroughthesuccessiveepochsoftheglacialperiod，hemusthavebeensubjecttotheurgencyofvastclimaticchanges。Duringthehalfmillionyearsmoreorlessofhisexistence，cold，stormy，glacialepochslastingtensofthousandsofyearshaveagainandagainbeensucceededbywarm，dry，interglacialepochsofequalduration。
*W。D。Matthew。"ClimateandEvolution，"N。Y。Acad。Sci。，1915。
DuringtheglacialepochstheinteriorofAsiawaswellwateredandfullofgamewhichsuppliedtheprimitivehumanhunters。Withtheadventofeachinterglacialepochtherainsdiminished，grassandtreesdisappeared，andthedesertspreadoverenormoustracts。Bothmenandanimalsmusthavebeendriventosorestraitsforlackoffood。Migrationtobetterregionswastheonlyrecourse。Thusforhundredsofthousandsofyearsthereappearstohavebeenaconstantlyrecurringoutwardpushfromthecenteroftheworld’sgreatestlandmass。Thatpush，withtheconsequentovercrowdingofotherregions，seemstohavebeenoneofthechiefforcesimpellingpeopletomigrateandcovertheearth。
AmongtheprimitivemenwhowerepushedoutwardfromtheAsiandesertsduringaperiodofaridity，onegroupmigratednortheastwardtowardtheKamchatkancornerofAsia。WhethertheyreachedBeringSeaandtheKamchatkanshorebeforethenextepochofglaciationwedonotknow。Doubtlesstheymovedslowly，perhapsaveragingonlyafewscoreorahundredmilespergeneration，forthatisgenerallythewaywithmigrationsofprimitivepeopleadvancingintounoccupiedterritory。Yetsometimestheymayhavemovedwithcomparativerapidity。IhaveseenatribeofherdsmenincentralAsiaabandonitsancestralhomeandstartonazigzagmarchofathousandmilesbecauseofagreatdrought。Thegrasswassoscantythattherewasnotenoughtosupporttheanimals。Thetribeleftatrailofblood，forwhereveritmoveditinfringedupontherightsofothersandsowithconflictwasdrivenonward。InsomesuchwaytheprimitivewandererswerekeptinmovementuntilatlasttheyreachedthebleakshoresoftheNorthPacific。Eventheresomething——perhapssheercuriosity——stillurgedthemon。Thegreenislandacrossthebaymayhavebeensoenticingthatatlastaraftoflogswasknottedtogetherwithstoutwithes。Perhapsatfirstthemenpaddledthemselvesacrossalone，butthehuntingandfishingprovedsogoodthatatlengththeytookthewomenandchildrenwiththem，andsoadvancedanotherstepalongtheroutetowardAmerica。Atothertimesdistress，strife，orthesearchforgamemayhaveledtheprimitivenomadsonandonalongthecoastuntiladaycamewhentheAsianhomewasleftandtheNewWorldwasentered。TheroutebywhichprimitivemanenteredAmericaisimportantbecauseitdeterminedthesurroundingsamongwhichthefirstAmericanslivedformanygenerations。IthassometimesbeenthoughtthattheredmencametoAmericabywayoftheKurileIslands，Kamchatka，andtheAleutianIslands。Ifthiswastheirroute，theyavoidedamigrationoftwoorthreethousandmilesthroughoneofthecoldestandmostinhospitableofregions。
This，however，isfarfromprobable。ThedistancefromKamchatkatothefirstoftheAleutianIslandsisoveronehundredmiles。
Astheislandisnotinsightfromthemainland，thereislittlechancethatabandofsavages，includingwomen，woulddeliberatelysailthither。Thereisequallylittleprobabilitythattheywalkedtotheislandontheice，fortheseaisneverfrozenacrossthewholewidth。Neverthelesstheclimatemayatthattimehavebeencolderthannow。Thereisalsoachancethatapartyofsavagesmayhavebeenblownacrosstotheislandinastorm。SupposethattheysucceededinreachingBeringIsland，asthemostAsiaticoftheAleutiansiscalled，thenextsteptoCopperIslandwouldbeeasy。Then，however，therecomesastretchofmorethantwohundredmiles。Thechancesthatafamilywouldevercrossthiswasteofoceanaremuchsmallerthaninthefirstcase。Stillanotherpossibilityremains。WasthereonceabridgeoflandfromAsiatoAmericainthisregion？Thereisnoevidenceofsuchalinkbetweenthetwocontinents，forafewraisedbeachesindicatethatduringrecentgeologicaltimestheAleutianIslandshavebeenupliftedratherthandepressed。
ThepassagefromAsiatoAmericaatBeringStrait，ontheotherhand，iscomparativelyeasy。TheStraititselfisfifty-sixmileswide，butinthemiddletherearetwosmallislandssothatthelongeststretchofwaterisonlyaboutthirty-fivemiles。
MoreovertheStraitisusuallyfullofice，whichfrequentlybecomesasolidmassfromshoretoshore。Thereforeitwouldbenostrangethingifsomeprimitivesavages，inhuntingforsealsorpolarbears，crossedtheStrait，eventhoughtheyhadnoboats。TodaythepeopleonbothsidesoftheStraitbelongtotheAmericanrace。Theystillretaintraditionsofatimewhentheirancestorscrossedthisnarrowstripofwater。TheThilanottineshavealegendthattwogiantsoncefoughtfiercelyontheArcticOcean。Onewouldhavebeendefeatedhadnotamanwhomhehadbefriendedcutthetendonofhisadversary’sleg。ThewoundedgiantfellintoBeringStraitandformedabridgeacrosswhichthereindeerenteredAmerica。Latercameastrangewomanbringingironandcopper。Sherepeatedhervisitsuntilthenativesinsultedher，whereuponshewentundergroundwithherfire-madetreasuresandcamebacknomore。WhatevermayhavebeenthecircumstancesthatledtheearliestfamiliestocrossfromAsiatoAmerica，theylittlereckedthattheyhadfoundanewcontinentandthattheywerethefirstoftheredrace。
UnlessthefirstAmericanscametothenewcontinentbywayoftheKurileandAleutianIslands，itwasprobablytheirmisfortunetospendmanygenerationsinthecoldregionsofnortheasternAsiaandnorthwesternAmerica。EveniftheyreachedAlaskabytheAleutianroutebutcametotheislandsbywayofthenorthernendoftheKamchatkanPeninsula，theymusthavedweltinaplacewheretheJanuarytemperatureaverages-10degreesF。andwheretherearefrostseverymonthintheyear。IftheycameacrossBeringStrait，theyencounteredastillmoresevereclimate。ThewinterstherearescarcelyworsethaninnorthernKamchatka，butthesummersareascoldasthemonthofMarchinNewYorkorChicago。
PerhapsaprolongedsojourninsuchaclimateisonereasonforthestolidcharacteroftheIndians。Ofcoursewecannotspeakwithcertainty，butwemust，inoursearchforanexplanation，considertheconditionsoflifeinthefarnorth。Foodisscantyatalltimes，andstarvationisafrequentvisitor，especiallyinwinterwhengameishardtoget。Thelongperiodsofcoldanddarknessareterriblyenervating。ThenervouswhitemangoescrazyifhestaystoolonginAlaska。Everyspringthefirstboatsreturningtocivilizationcarryanundulylargeproportionofmenwhohavelosttheirmindsbecausetheyhaveenduredtoomanydark，coldwinters。Hiscompanionssayofsuchaman，"TheNorthhasgothim。"AlmosteveryAlaskanrecognizesthedanger。
Asonemansaidtoafriend，"ItistimeIgotoutofhere。"
"Why？"saidthefriend，"youseemallright。What’sthematter？"
"Well，"saidtheother，"youseeIbegintolikethesmellofskunkcabbage，and，whenamangetsthatway，it’stimehewentsomewhereelse。"
Theskunkcabbage，bytheway，growsinAlaskaingreatthicketstenfeethigh。Themanwasperfectlyserious，forhemeantthathismindwasbeginningtoactinwaysthatwerenotnormal。
NowhereisthestrainoflifeinthefarnorthbetterdescribedthaninthepoemsofRobertW。Service。
Oh，theawfulhushthatseemedtocrushmedownoneveryhand，AsIblunderedblindwithatrailtofindthroughthatblankandbitterland;
Halfdazed，halfcrazedinthewinterwild，withitsgrimheartbreakingwoes，Andtheruthlessstrifeforagriponlifethatonlythesourdoughknows！
Northbythecompass，NorthIpressed;riverandpeakandplainPassedlikeadreamIslepttoloseandwakedtodreamagain。
Riverandplainandmightypeak——andwhocouldstandunawed？
Astheirsummitsblazed，hecouldstandundazedatthefootofthethroneofGod。
North，aye，North，throughalandaccurst，shunnedbythescouringbrutes，AndallIheardwasmyownharshwordandthewhineofthemalamutes，TillatlastIcametoacabinsquat，builtinthesideofahill，AndIburstinthedoor，andthereonthefloor，frozentodeath，layBill。*
*From"BalladsofaCheechako。"
Thehumanorganisminheritssodelicateanadjustmenttoclimatethat，inspiteofman’sboastedabilitytoliveanywhere，thestrainofthefrozenNortheliminatesthemorenervousandactivetypesofmind。Onlythosecanendurewhosenerveslacksensitivenessandwhoareabletobearlongprivationandthestrainofhungerandcoldanddarkness。ThoughtheIndianmaydifferfromthewhitemaninmanyrespects，suchconditionsareprobablyasbadforhimasforanyrace。Forthisreasonitisnotimprobablethatlongsojournsatwaystationsonthecold，AlaskanroutefromcentralAsiamayhaveweededoutcertaintypesofminds。PerhapsthatiswhytheIndian，thoughbrave，stoical，andhardy，doesnotpossessthealert，nervoustemperamentwhichleadstoinventionandprogress。
TheancestorsoftheredmanunwittinglychosetheeasiestpathtoAmericaandsoenteredthecontinentfirst，butthiswastheirmisfortune。Theycouldnotinheritthelandbecausetheychoseapathwhoseunfavorableinfluence，exertedthroughoutcenturies，leftthemunabletocopewithlaterarrivalsfromotherdirections。ThepartsofAmericamostfavorablefortheIndianarealsobestforthewhitemanandNegro。TherethealertermindsoftheEuropeanswhomigratedintheotherdirectionhavequicklyeliminatedtheIndian。HislongnorthernsojournmaybethereasonwhyfarthersouthintropicallandsheisevennowatadisadvantagecomparedwiththeNegroorwiththecooliefromtheEastIndies。InCentralAmerica，forinstance，itisgenerallyrecognizedthatNegroesstandtheheatandmoistureofthelowlandsbetterthanIndians。Accordingtoacompetentauthority："TheAmericanIndianscannotbeartheheatofthetropicsevenaswellastheEuropean，nottospeakoftheAfricanrace。Theyperspirelittle，theirskinbecomeshot，andtheyareeasilyprostratedbyexertioninanelevatedtemperature。Theyarepeculiarlysubjecttodiseasesofhotclimates，ashepaticdisorders，showingnoneoftheimmunityoftheAfrican。
Furthermore，thefinestphysicalspecimensoftheracearefoundinthecolderregionsofthetemperatezones，thePampasandPatagonianIndiansinthesouth，theIroquoisandAlgonkinsinthenorth;whereas，inthetropicstheyaregenerallyundersized，short-lived，ofinferiormuscularforceandwithslighttoleranceofdisease。"*"Noone，"addsanotherobserver，"couldliveamongtheIndiansoftheUpperAmazonwithoutbeingstruckwiththeirconstitutionaldisliketoheat。TheimpressionforceditselfuponmymindthattheIndianlivesasastrangerorimmigrantinthesehotregions。"**ThuswhencomparedwiththeotherinhabitantsofAmerica，fromeverypointofviewtheIndianseemstobeatadisadvantage，muchofwhichmaybeduetothepathwhichhetookfromtheOldWorldtotheNew。
*D。G。Brinton，"TheAmericanRace，"pp。34，35。
**H。W。Bates，"TheNaturalistontheRiverAmazons。"vol。II，pp。200，201。
BeforetheredmanlosthisAmericanheritage，hemusthaveenjoyeditforthousandsuponthousandsofyears。Otherwisehenevercouldhavebecomesodifferentfromhisnearestrelative，theMongol。ThetwoareastrulydistinctracesasarethewhitemanandtheMalay。NorcouldtheIndiansthemselveshavebecomesoextraordinarilydiverseexceptduringthelapseofthousandsofyears。TheQuichuaofthecoldhighlandsofPeruisasdifferentfromtheMayaofYucatanortheHuronofsouthernCanadaastheSwedeisfromtheArmenianortheJew。Theseparationofonestockfromanotherhasgonesofarthatalmostcountlesslanguageshavebeendeveloped。IntheUnitedStatesalonetheIndianshavefifty-five"families"oflanguagesandinthewholeofAmericatherearenearlytwohundredsuchgroups。
ThesecompriseoveronethousanddistinctlanguageswhicharemutuallyunintelligibleandatleastasdifferentasSpanishandItalian。SuchdifferencesmightariseinadayattheTowerofBabel，butintheprocessesofevolutiontheytakethousandsofyears。
Duringthosethousandsofyearstheredman，inspiteofhisArctichandicap，bynomeansshowedhimselfwhollylackinginoriginalityandinventiveability。InYucatantwoorthreethousandyearsagotheMayasweresuchgoodscientistsandrecordedtheirobservationsofthestarssoaccuratelythattheyframedacalendarmoreexactthananyexcepttheonethatwehaveusedforthelasttwocenturies。Theyshowedstillgreaterpowersofmindininventingtheartofwritingandintheirarchitecture。Laterweshalldepicttheenvironmentunderwhichthesethingsoccurred;itisenoughtosuggestinpassingthatperhapsatthisperiodtheancestorsoftheIndianshadcapacitiesasgreatasthoseofanypeople。Todaytheymightpossiblyholdtheirownagainstthewhiteman，wereitnotforthegreathandicapwhichtheyoncesufferedbecauseAsiaapproachesAmericaonlyinthecold，depressingnorth。
TheIndianswerenottheonlyprimitivepeoplewhoweredrivenfromcentralAsiabyaridity。AnothergrouppushedwestwardtowardEurope。TheyfaredfarbetterthantheirIndiancousinswhowenttothenortheast。TheseprospectiveEuropeansneverencounteredbenumbingphysicalconditionslikethoseofnortheasternAsiaandnorthwesternAmerica。EvenwheniceshroudedthenorthernpartofEurope，therestofthecontinentwasapparentlyfavoredwithastimulatingclimate。Thenasnow，Europewasprobablyoneoftheregionswherestormsaremostfrequent。Henceitwasfreefromthemonotonywhichissodeadlyinotherregions。WhentheiceretreatedourEuropeanancestorsdoubtlessfollowedslowlyinitswake。Thustheirracialcharacterwasevolvedinoneoftheworld’smoststimulatingregions。Privationtheymusthavesuffered，andhardihoodandboldnesswereabsolutelyessentialinthecombatwithstorms，cold，wildbeasts，fiercewinds，andragingwaves。Butunderthespurofconstantvarietyandchange，thesedifficultiesweremerelyincentivestoprogress。WhenthetimecameforthepeopleofthewestofEuropetocrosstoAmerica，theywereofadifferentcaliberfromthepreviousimmigrants。
TwofactsofphysicalgeographybroughtEuropeintocontactwithAmerica。OneofthesewastheislandsoftheNorth，theotherthetrade-windsoftheSouth。Eachseemstohavecausedapreliminarycontactwhichfailedtoproduceimportantresults。AsinthenorthernPacific，sointhenorthernAtlantic，islandsarestepping-stonesfromtheOldWorldtotheNew。Yetbecauseinthelattercasetheislandsarefarapart，itishardertocrossthewaterfromNorwayandtheLofotenIslandstoIcelandandGreenlandthanitistocrossfromAsiabywayoftheAleutianIslandsorBeringStrait。NeverthelessinthetenthcenturyoftheChristianeraboldNorsevikingsmadethepassageinthefaceofstormandwind。Intheirslenderopenshipstheybravedtheelementsonvoyageaftervoyage。Wethinkofthevikingsaspirates，andsotheywere。Buttheywerealsodiligentcolonistswhotilledthegroundwhereveritwouldyieldeventhescantiestliving。InIcelandandGreenlandtheymusthavelaboredmightilytocarryonthefarmsofwhichtheSagastellus。Whentheymadetheirvoyages，honestcommercewasgenerallyintheirmindsquiteasmuchaswasplunder。Leif，thesonofthatroughRedEricwhofirstsettledGreenland，madeafamousvoyagetoVinland，themainlandofAmerica。Likesomanyothervoyagershewasbentonfindingaregionwheremencouldlivehappilyandonfillinghisboatswithgrapes，wood，orothercommoditiesworthcarryinghome。
InviewoftheenergyoftheNorsemen，thetracesoftheirpresenceintheWesternHemisphereareamazinglyslight。InGreenlandafewinsignificantheapsofstonesaresupposedtoshowwheresomeofthembuiltsmallvillages。FarinthenorthStefanssonfoundfair-haired，blue-eyedEskimos。ThesemaybedescendantsoftheNorsemen，althoughtheyhavemigratedthousandsofmilesfromGreenland。InMainetheMicmacIndiansaresaidtohavehadacuriouscustomwhichtheymayhavelearnedfromthevikings。Whenachiefdied，theychosehislargestcanoe。Onittheypileddrywood，andonthewoodtheyplacedthebody。Thentheysetfiretothepileandsenttheblazingboatouttosea。PerhapsinearliertimestheMicmacsoncewatchedtheflamingfuneralpyreofafair-hairedviking。AstheruddyflamesleapedskywardandwerereflectedintheshimmeringwavesofthegreatwatersthetribesmenmusthavefeltthattheGreatSpiritwouldgladlywelcomeachiefwhocameinsuchablazeofglory。*
*ForthisinformationIamindebtedtoMr。StansburyHagar。
ItseemsstrangethatalmostnoothertracesofthestrongvikingsarefoundinAmerica。Theexplanationliespartlyinthelengthanddifficultyoftheoceanvoyage，andpartlyintheinhospitablecharacterofthetwogreatislandsthatservedasstepping-stonesfromtheOldWorldtotheNew。Icelandwithitsglaciers，storms，andlongdrearywintersisbadenough。
Greenlandisworse。MerelythetipofthatislandwasknowntotheNorse——andsmallwonder，forthenasnowmostofGreenlandwasshroudedinice。VariousScandinavianauthors，however，havethoughtthatduringthemostprosperousdaysofthevikingstheconditionsinGreenlandwerenotquitesobadasatthepresentday。Onesettlement，Osterbyden，numbered190farms，12churches，2monasteries，and1bishopric。Itisevenstatedthatapple-treesborefruitandthatsomewheatwasraised。"Cattle-
raisingandfishing，"saysPettersson，"appeartohaveprocuredagoodliving……AtpresentthewholestockofcattleinGreenlanddoesnotamountto100animals。"*Inthosedaystheicewhichbordersalltheeastcoastandmuchofthewestseemstohavebeenlesstroublesomethannow。Intheearliestaccountsnothingissaidofthisiceasadangertonavigation。WearetoldthatthebestsailingroutewasthroughthestraitnorthofCapeFarewellIsland，wheretodaynoshipscanpassbecauseoftheice。SincethedaysoftheNorsementheglaciershaveincreasedinsize，forthenativessaythatcertainruinsarenowburiedbeneaththeice，whileelsewhereruinscanbeseenwhichhavebeencutofffromtherestofthecountrybyadvancingglacialtongues。
*O。Pettersson，"ClimaticVariationsinHistoricandPrehistoricTimes。"SvenskaHydrogrifisk——BiologiskaKommissioneurSkrifter，HaftV。Stockholm。
WhytheNorsemendisappearedfromtheWesternHemispherewedonotexactlyknow，butthereareinterestinghintsofanexplanation。Itappearsthatthefourteenthcenturywasatimeofgreatdistress。InNorwaythecropsfailedyearafteryearbecauseofcoldandstorms。Provinceswhichwereformerlyabletosupportthemselvesbyagriculturewereobligedtoimportfood。
ThepeopleathomewerenolongerabletokeepintouchwiththestrugglingcolonyinGreenland。Nosuppliescamefromthehomeland，noreenforcementstostrengthenthecolonistsandmakethemfeelthattheywereapartofthegreatworld。MoreoverinthelateNorsesagasmuchissaidabouttheicealongtheGreenlandcoast，whichseemstohavebeenmoreabundantthanformerly。EventheEskimosseemtohavebeencausingtrouble，thoughformerlytheyhadbeenafriendly，peaceablepeoplewholivedfartothenorthanddidnotdisturbthesettlers。Inthefourteenthcentury，however，theybegantomakeraidssuchasarecommonwhenprimitivepeoplefallintodistress。Perhapsthestormsandtheadvancingicedroveawaythesealsandotheranimals，sothattheEskimoswerelefthungry。Theyconsequentlymigratedsouthand，inthefifteenthcentury，finallywipedoutthelastoftheoldNorsesettlers。IftheNorsehadestablishedpermanentsettlementsonthemainlandofNorthAmerica，theymighthavepersistedtothisday。Asitwas，thecold，bleakclimateofthenorthernrouteacrosstheAtlanticcheckedtheirprogress。LiketheIndians，theyhadthemisfortuneoffindingaroutetoAmericathroughregionsthatarenotgoodforman。
Thoughislandsmaybestepping-stonesbetweentheOldWorldandtheNew，theyhavenotbeenthebringersofcivilization。Thatfunctioninthehistoryofmanhasbeenlefttothewinds。Thewesterlies，however，whicharetheprevailingwindsinthelatitudeoftheUnitedStatesandEurope，havenotbeenofmuchimportance。OntheAtlanticsidetheywereformanycenturiesabarriertocontactbetweentheOldWorldandtheNew。OnthePacificsidetheyhavebeenknowntoblowJapanesevesselstotheshoresofAmericacontrarytothewillofthemariners。Perhapsthesamethingmayhavehappenedinearliertimes。AsiamaythushavemadesomeslightcontributiontoprimitiveAmerica，butnoimportantelementsofcivilizationcanbetracedtothissource。
Fromlatitude30degreesN。to30degreesS。thetradewindsprevail。Astheyblowfromtheeast，theymakeiteasyforboatstocomefromAfricatoAmerica。IncomparativelyrecenttimestheybroughttheslaveshipsfromtheGuineacoasttoourSouthernStates。TheAfrican，liketheIndian，haspassedthroughamostunfavorableenvironmentonhiswayfromcentralAsiatoAmerica。Forageshewasdoomedtoliveinaclimatewherehightemperatureandhumidityweedouttheactivetypeofhumanbeing。
SinceactivitylikethatofEuropemeansdeathinatropicalclimate，theroutebywayofAfricahasbeenifanythingworsethanbyBeringStrait。
Byfarthemostimportantoccurrencewhichcanbelaidatthedoorofthetrade-windsisthebringingofthecivilizationofEuropeandtheMediterraneantotheNewWorld。Twicethismayhavehappened，butthefirstoccurrenceisdoubtfulandleftonlyaslightimpress。ForthousandsofyearsthepeoplearoundtheMediterraneanSeahavebeenboldsailors。Before600B。C。PharaohNecho，soHerodotussays，hadsentPhenicianshipsonathree-yearcruiseentirelyaroundAfrica。ThePheniciansalsosailedbywayofGibraltartoEnglandtobringtinfromCornwall，andby500B。C。theCarthaginianswerewellacquaintedwiththeAtlanticcoastofnorthernAfrica。
Atsometimeorother，longbeforetheChristianera，ashipbelongingtooneofthepeoplesoftheeasternMediterraneanwasprobablyblowntotheshoresofAmericabythesteadytrade-winds。Ofcourse，noonecansaypositivelythatsuchavoyageoccurred。YetcertaincurioussimilaritiesbetweentheOldWorldandtheNewenableustoinferwithagreatdealofprobabilitythatitactuallyhappened。Themerefact，forexample，thattheadobehousesofthePuebloIndiansofNewMexicoarestrikinglylikethehousesofnorthernAfricaandPersiaisnoproofthatthecivilizationoftheOldWorldandtheNewarerelated。Asimilarphysicalenvironmentmightreadilycausethesametypeofhousetobeevolvedinbothplaces。Whenwefindstrikingsimilaritiesofotherkinds，however，thecasebecomesquitedifferent。Theconstellationsofthezodiac，forinstance，aretypifiedbytwelvelivingcreatures，suchasthetwins，thebull，thelion，thevirgin，thecrab，andthegoat。
Onlyoneoftheconstellations，thescorpion，presentsanyrealresemblancetotheanimalforwhichitisnamed。YetthesignsofthezodiacinMediterraneanlandsandinpre-ColumbianAmericafromPerutosouthernMexicoarealmostidentical。HereisalistshowingtheLatinandEnglishnamesoftheconstellationsandtheirequivalentsinthecalendarsofthePeruvians，Mexicans，andMayas。*
*SeeS。Hagar，"TheBearingofAstronomyontheProblemsoftheUnityorPluralityandtheProbablePlaceofOriginoftheAmericanAborigines，inAmericanAnthropologist，"vol。XIV
（1912），pp。43-48。
SignEnglishPeruvianMexicanMaya————————————————————————————————————————————————————————
AriesRamLlamaFlayer——
TaurusBull（originallyStag）
StagStagorDeerStagGeminiTwinsManandWomanTwinsTwoGeneralsCancerCrabCuttlefishCuttlefishCuttlefishLeoLionPumaOcelotOcelotVirgoVirgin（MotherGoddessofCereals）
MaizeMotherMaizeMotherMaizeMotherLibraScales（originallypartofScorpio）
ForksScorpionScorpionScorpioScorpionMummyScorpionScorpionSagittariusBowmanArrowsorSpearsHunterandWarGodHunterandWarGodCapricornusSeaGoatBeardBeardedGod——
AquariusWaterPourerWaterWaterWaterPiscesFishes（andKnot）KnotTwistedReeds——
Noticehowcloselytheselistsarealike。TheramdoesnotappearinAmericabecausenosuchanimalwasknownthere。Thenearestsubstitutewasthellama。IntheOldWorldthesecondconstellationisnowcalledthebull，butcuriouslyenoughinearlierdaysitwascalledthestaginMesopotamia。Thetwins，insteadofbeingCastorandPollux，mayequallywellbeamanandawomanortwogenerals。Tolandsmennotfamiliarwithcreaturesofthedeep，thecrabandthecuttlefishwouldnotseemgreatlydifferent。ThelionisunknowninAmerica，butthecreaturewhichmostnearlytakeshisplaceisthepumaorocelot。Soitgoeswithallthesignsofthezodiac。TherearelittledifferencesbetweentheOldWorldandtheNew，buttheyonlyemphasizetheresemblance。Mathematicallythereisnotonechanceinthousandsorevenmillionsthatsucharesemblancecouldgrowupbyaccident。OthersimilaritiesbetweenceremoniesorreligiouswordsintheOldWorldandtheNewmightbepointedout，butthezodiacisillustrationenough。
Suchresemblances，however，donotindicateapermanentconnectionbetweenMediterraneancivilizationandthatofCentralAmerica。TheydonotevenindicatethatanyoneeverreturnedfromtheWesternHemispheretotheEasternprevioustoColumbus。
NordotheyindicatethatthecivilizationoftheNewWorldarosefromthatoftheOld。TheysimplysuggestthatafterthepeopleoftheMediterraneanregionshadbecomewellcivilizedandafterthoseofAmericawerealsosufficientlycivilizedtoassimilatenewideas，astrayshiportwowasblownbythetrade-windsacrosstheAtlantic。ThathypotheticalvoyagewastheprecursorofthegreatjourneyofColumbus。WithoutthetradewindsthishistoricdiscoverernevercouldhavefoundtheWestIndies。
Supposethatastrongwestwindhadblownhimbackwardonhiscoursewhenhismenweremutinous。Supposethathehadbeenforcedtobeatagainstheadwindsweekafterweek。Isthereonechanceinathousandthatevenhisindomitablespiritcouldhavekepthiscraftheadedsteadilyintothewest？Butbecausetherewerethetrade-windstobringhim，thewaywasopenedfortheenergeticpeopleofEuropetopossessthenewcontinent。Thusthegreateststreamofimmigrationcommencedtoflow，andtheNewWorldbegantotakeonaEuropeanaspect。
CHAPTERII。THEFORMOFTHECONTINENT
Americaformsthelongestandstraightestboneintheearth’sskeleton。Theskeletonconsistsofsixgreatbones，whichmaybesaidtoformaspheroidaltetrahedron，orpyramidwithatriangularbase，forwhenaglobewithafairlyrigidsurfacecollapsesbecauseofshrinkage，ittendstoassumethisform。
Thatiswhathashappenedtotheearth。Geologiststellusthatduringthethousandmillionyears，moreorless，sincegeologicalhistorybegan，theearthhasgrowncoolerandhencehascontracted。Moreoversomeofthechemicalcompoundsoftheinteriorhavebeentransformedintoothercompoundswhichoccupylessspace。Forthesereasonstheearthappearstohavediminishedinsizeuntilnowitsdiameterisfromtwohundredtofourhundredmileslessthanformerly。Duringtheprocessofcontractionthecrusthascollapsedinfourmainareas，roughlytriangularinshape。Betweenthesestandthesixridgeswhichwehavecalledthebones。Eachofthefourdepressedareasformsasideofourtetrahedronandisoccupiedbyanocean。Theridgesandtheareasimmediatelyflankingtheoceansformthecontinents。ThesidewhichwemaythinkofasthebasecontainstheArcticOcean。Theridgessurroundingitarebroadandflat。
Largepartsofthemstandabovesea-levelandformthenorthernportionsofNorthAmerica，Europe，andAsia。AsecondsideisthePacificOceanwiththegreatridgeofthetwoAmericasononehandandAsiaandAustraliaontheother。NextcomesthesidecontainingtheIndianOceaninthehollowandtheridgesofAfricaandAustraliaoneitherhand。ThelastofthefoursidescontainstheAtlanticOceanandisboundedbyAfricaandEuropeononehandandNorthandSouthAmericaontheother。Finallythetipofthepyramidprojectsabovethesurroundingwaters，andformsthecontinentofAntarctica。
ItmayseemamereaccidentthatthistipliesneartheSouthPole，whilethecenteroftheoppositefaceliesneartheNorthPole。Yetthishasbeenofalmostinfiniteimportanceintheevolutionnotonlyofplantsandanimalsbutofmen。Thereasonisthatthisarrangementgivesrisetoavastandalmostcontinuouslandmassincomparativelyhighlatitudes。Onlyinsuchplacesdoesevolutionappeartomakerapidprogress。*
*W。D。Matthew，"ClimateandEvolution，"N。Y。Acad。Sci。，1915。
Evolutionisespeciallystimulatedbytwoconditions。Thefirstisthatthereshallbemarkedchangesintheenvironmentsothattheprocessofnaturalselectionhasfullopportunitytodoitswork。Thesecondisthatnumerousnewformsormutants，asthebiologistscallthem，shallbeproduced。Bothoftheseconditionsaremostfullymetinlargecontinentsinthetemperatezone，forinsuchplacesclimaticvariationsaremostextreme。Suchvariationsmaytaketheformofextremechangeseitherfromdaytonight，fromseasontoseason，orfromonecenturytoanother。
Inanycase，asDarwinlongagopointedout，theycausesomeformsoflifetoperishwhileotherssurvive。Thusclimaticvariationsareamongthemostpowerfulfactorsincausingnaturalselectionandhenceinstimulatingevolution。Moreoverithaslatelybeenshownthatvariationsintemperatureareoneofthechiefcausesoforganicvariation。MorganandPlough，*forexample，havediscoveredthatwhenacertainfly，calledthedrosophila，issubjectedtoextremesofheatorcold，theoffspringshowanunusuallystrongtendencytodifferfromtheparents。Hencetheclimaticvariabilityoftheinterioroflargecontinentsintemperatelatitudesprovidesnewformsoflifeandthenselectssomeofthemforpreservation。Thefossilsfoundintherocksoftheearth’scrustsupportthisview。TheyindicatethatmostofthegreatfamiliesofhigheranimalsoriginatedinthecentralpartofthegreatlandmassofEuropeandAsia。A
secondbutmuchsmallerareaofevolutionwassituatedinthesimilarpartofNorthAmerica。Fromthesetwocentersnewformsoflifespreadoutwardtoothercontinents。Theirmovementswerehelpedbythefactthatthetetrahedralformoftheearthcausesalmostallthecontinentstobeunitedbybridgesofland。
*Unpublishedmanuscript。
Ifanyonedoubtstheimportanceofthetetrahedralform，lethimconsiderhowevolutionwouldhavebeenhamperedifthelandoftheglobewerearrangedasisolatedmassesinlowlatitudes，whileoceanstooktheplaceofthepresentnortherncontinents。
ThebackwardnessoftheindigenouslifeofAfricashowshowanequatorialpositionretardsevolution。ThestillmoremarkedbackwardnessofAustraliawithitskangaroosandduck-billedplatypusesshowshowmuchgreateristheretardationwhenacontinentisalsosmallandisolated。Today，nolessthaninthepast，thetetrahedralformoftheearthandtherelationofthetetrahedrontothepolesandtotheequatorpreservetheconditionsthatfavorrapidevolution。TheyarethedominantfactorsindeterminingthatAmericashallbeoneofthetwogreatcentersofcivilization。
IfNorthandSouthAmericabecountedasonemajorlandmass，andEurope，Asia，andAfricaasanother，thetwopresentthesamegeneralfeatures。Yettheirmountains，plains，andcoastalindentationsaresoarrangedthatwhatisontheeastinoneisonthewestintheother。Theirsimilarityissomewhatlikethatofaman’stwohandsplacedpalmsdownonatable。
OnamapoftheworldplaceafingerofonehandonthewesternendofAlaskaandafingeroftheotheronthenortheasterntipofAsiaandfollowthemainbonesofthetwocontinents。Seehowthechiefmountainsystems，thePacific"cordilleras，"trendawayfromoneanother，southeastwardandsouthwestward。Inthecentersofthecontinentstheyexpandintovastplateaus。ThatofAmericaintheRockyMountainregionoftheUnitedStatesreachesawidthofoverathousandmiles，whilethatofAsiainTibetandwesternChinaexpandstofargreaterproportions。
FromtheplateausthetwocordillerasswingabruptlyAtlantic-
ward。TheEurasiancordilleraextendsthroughtheHinduKush，Caucasus，andAsiaMinorrangestosouthernEuropeandtheAlps。
ThenitpassesonintoSpainandendsinthevolcanoesoftheCanaryIslands。TheAmericancordilleraswingseastwardinMexicoandcontinuesastheisolatedrangesoftheWestIndiesuntilitendsinthevolcanoesofMartinique。CentralAmericaappearsatfirstsighttobeacontinuationofthegreatcordillera，butreallyitissomethingquitedifferent——amassofvolcanicmaterialpouredoutinthegapwherethemainchainofmountainsbreaksdownforaspace。Inneitherhemisphere，however，isthemainsouthwardsweepofthemountainsreallylost。IntheOldWorldthecordillerarevivesinthemountainsofSyriaandsouthernArabiaandthenrunssouthwardalongthewholelengthofeasternAfrica。InAmericaitlikewiserevivesinthemightyAndes，whichtaketheirrisefifteenhundredmileseastofthebrokenendofthenortherncordillerainMexico。IntheAndesevenmoredistinctlythaninAfricathecordilleraformsamightywallrunningnorthandsouth。ItexpandsintotheplateauofPeruandBolivia，justasitsAfricancompeerexpandsintothatofAbyssinia，butthisisamereincident。Themainbone，sotospeak，keepsonineachcasetillitdisappearsinthegreatsouthernocean。Eventhere，however，itisnotwhollylost，foritrevivesinthecold，loftycontinentofAntarctica，whereitcoalescesoncemorewiththeothergreattetrahedralridgesofAfricaandAustralia。
Itiseasytoseethatthesegreatcordillerashaveturnedmostoftheearth’schiefriverstowardtheAtlanticandtheArcticOceans。Thatiswhythesetwooceanswithanareaofonlyforty-threemillionsquaremilesreceivethedrainagefromtwentymillionsquaremilesofland，whilethefarlargerIndianandPacificOceanswithanareaofninety-onemillionsquaremilesreceivetheriversofonlytenmillionsquaremiles。Theworld’sstreamsofcivilization，liketheriversofwater，haveflowedfromthegreatcordillerastowardtheAtlantic。Halfoftheworld’speople，tobesure，arelodgedintherelativelysmallareasknownasChinaandIndiaonthePacificsideoftheOldWorldcordillera。Neverthelesstheactivestreamsofcivilizationhaveflowedmainlyontheotherside——thesidewheremanapparentlyoriginated。Fromtheearliesttimesthemountainshaveservedtodetermineman’schiefmigrations。Theirruggedfastnesseshinderhumanmovementsandtherebygiverisetoastrongtendencytomoveparalleltotheirbases。DuringthedaysofprimitivemanthetrendofthemountainsapparentlydirectedhismigrationsnortheastwardtoBeringStraitandthensoutheastwardandsouthwardfromoneendofAmericatotheother。
InthesamewaythemigrationstoEuropeandAfricawhichultimatelyreachedAmericamovedmainlyparalleltothemountains。
FromendtoendofAmericathegreatmountainsformasharpdividingline。TheaboriginaltribesonthePacificslopearemarkedlydifferentfromthosefarthereastacrossthemountains。
Brintonsumsthecaseupadmirably：
"Asarulethetribesofthewesterncoastarenotconnectedwithanyeastofthemountains。Whatismoresingular，althoughtheydiffersurprisinglyamongthemselvesinlanguage，theyhavemarkedanthropologicsimilarities，physicalandpsychical。
VirchowhasemphasizedthefactthattheskullsfromthenorthernpointofVancouver’sIslandrevealanunmistakableanalogytothosefromthesoutherncoastofCalifornia;andthisistoadegreetrueofmanyintermediatepoints。Notthatthecraniahavethesameindices。Onthecontrary，theypresentgreatandconstantdifferenceswithinthesametribe;butthesedifferencesareanalogousonetotheother，andonfixedlines。
"TherearemanyotherphysicalsimilaritieswhichmarkthePacificIndiansandcontrastthemwiththoseeastofthemountains。Theeyesarelessoblique，thenoseflatter，thelipsfuller，thechinmorepointed，thefacewider。Thereismorehaironthefaceandintheaxilla，andthedifferencebetweenthesexesismuchmoreobvious。
"Thementalcharacterisalsoincontrast。ThePacifictribesaremorequiet，submissive，anddocile;theyhavelesscourage，andlessofthatuntamableindependencewhichissoconstantafeatureinthehistoryoftheAlgonquinsandIroquois。"*
*D。G。Brinton，"TheAmericanRace，"pp。103-4。
Althoughmountainsmayguidemigrations，theplainsaretheregionswherepeopledwellingreatestnumbers。TheplainsinthetwogreatlandmassesoftheOldWorldandtheNewhavethesameinverseorright-andleft-handedsymmetryasthemountains。InthenorththevaststretchesfromtheMackenzieRivertotheGulfofMexicocorrespondtotheplainsofSiberiaandRussiafromtheLenatotheBlackSea。Bothregionshaveavastsweepofmonotonoustundrasatthenorthandbothbecomefertilegranariesinthecenter。Beforethewhitemanintroducedthehorse，theox，andironploughs，thereprevailedanextraordinarysimilarityinthehabitsoftheplainsIndiansfromTexastoAlberta。Allalikedependedonthebuffalo;allhuntedhiminmuchthesameway;allusedhisskinsfortentsandrobes，hisbonesfortools，andhishornsforutensils。Allalikemadehimthecenteroftheirelaborateritualsanddances。BecausetheplainsofNorthAmericawereeasytotraverse，therelativelyhighcultureoftheancientpeopleoftheSouthspreadintotheMississippiValley。HencetheNatcheztribeofMississippihadahighlydevelopedformofsun-worshipandawell-definedcastesystemwiththreegradesofnobilityinadditiontothecommonpeople。Evenfarthernorth，almosttotheOhioRiver，tracesofthesun-worshipofMexicohadpenetratedalongtheeasypathwayoftheplains。
SouthofthegreatgranariesofNorthAmericaandEurasiatheplainsarebroken，butoccuragainintheOrinocoregionofSouthAmericaandtheSaharaofAfrica。Thencetheystretchalmostunbrokentowardthesouthernendofthecontinents。Inviewofthefertilityoftheplainsitisstrangethatthecentersofcivilizationhavesorarelybeenformedinthesevastlevelexpanses。
ThemoststrikingoftheinverseresemblancesbetweenAmericaandtheOldWorldarefoundalongtheAtlanticborder。InthenorthofEuropetheWhiteSeacorrespondstoHudsonBayinAmerica。
FarthertowardtheAtlanticOceanScandinaviawithitsmountains，glaciers，andfiordsissimilartoLabrador，althoughmorefavoredbecausewarmer。NexttheislandsofGreatBritainoccupyapositionsimilartothatofNewfoundlandandPrinceEdwardIsland。Buthereagaintheeasternclimateismuchmorefavorablethanthewestern。AlthoughpracticallyallofNewfoundlandissouthofEngland，theAmericanislandhasonlysixinhabitantspersquaremile，whiletheEuropeancountryhassixhundred。TotheeastoftheBritishIslestheNorthSea，theBaltic，andLakesLadogaandOnegacorrespondinstrikingfashiontotheGulfofSt。Lawrence，theriverofthesamename，andtheGreatLakesfromOntariotoSuperior。NexttheindentedshoresofwesternFranceandthepeninsulaofSpainresembleourownindentedcoastandthepeninsulaofFlorida。HereatlasttheAmericanregionsareasfavoredastheEuropean。FarthersouththeMediterraneanandBlackseaspenetratefarintotheinteriorjustasdoestheGulfofMexico，andeachcontinentisnearlycutintwowherethecanalsofSuezandPanamarespectivelyhavebeentrenched。
FinallyinthesoutherncontinentsalongswingeastwardinAmericabalancesasimilarswingwestwardinAfrica。ThusCapeSaintRoqueandCapeVerdeareseparatedbyscarcely16degreesoflongitude，althoughtheextremepointsoftheGulfofMexicoandtheBlackSeaare140degreesapart。Finallytothesouthoftheequatorthecontinentsswingawayfromoneanotheroncemore，preservingeverywherethesamecuriousinverserelationship。
EvenmorestrikingthantheinverseresemblanceoftheNewWorldtotheOldisthedirectsimilarityofNorthandSouthAmerica。
Inphysicalformthetwocontinentsareastonishinglyalike。Notonlydoeseachhavethetypicaltriangularformwhichwouldnaturallyarisefromtetrahedralshrinkingoftheglobe，buttherearefourothercardinalpointsofresemblance。First，inthenortheasteachpossessesanareaofextremelyancientrocks，theLaurentianhighlandsofQuebecandLabradorinNorthAmericaandthehighlandsofGuianainSouthAmerica。Second，inthesoutheastliehighlandsofoldbutnotthemostancientrocksstretchingfromnortheasttosouthwestintheAppalachianregionofNorthAmerica，andintheBrazilianmountainsofthesoutherncontinent。Third，alongthewesternsideofeachcontinentrecentcrustalmovementssupplementedbyvolcanicactiononamagnificentscalehavegivenrisetoacomplexseriesofyoungermountains，thetwogreatcordilleras。Finally，thespacesbetweenthethreemountainmassesareoccupiedbyaseriesofvastconfluentplainswhichineachcaseextendfromthenorthernoceantothesouthernandbendaroundthesoutheasternhighlands。