CONCERNING CIVIL GOVERNMENT_第1章_无广告免费看-丁香书院

　　ChapterI
　　OfPoliticalPower1。Ithavingbeenshownintheforegoingdiscourse：*
　　*AnEssayConcerningCertainFalsePrinciples。
　　Firstly。ThatAdamhadnot，eitherbynaturalrightoffatherhoodorbypositivedonationfromGod，anysuchauthorityoverhischildren，nordominionovertheworld，asispretended。
　　Secondly。Thatifhehad，hisheirsyethadnorighttoit。
　　Thirdly。Thatifhisheirshad，therebeingnolawofNaturenorpositivelawofGodthatdetermineswhichistherightheirinallcasesthatmayarise，therightofsuccession，andconsequentlyofbearingrule，couldnothavebeencertainlydetermined。
　　Fourthly。Thatifeventhathadbeendetermined，yettheknowledgeofwhichistheeldestlineofAdam’sposteritybeingsolongsinceutterlylost，thatintheracesofmankindandfamiliesoftheworld，thereremainsnottooneaboveanothertheleastpretencetobetheeldesthouse，andtohavetherightofinheritance。
　　Allthesepromiseshaving，asIthink，beenclearlymadeout，itisimpossiblethattherulersnowonearthshouldmakeanybenefit，orderiveanytheleastshadowofauthorityfromthatwhichisheldtobethefountainofallpower，"Adam’sprivatedominionandpaternaljurisdiction"；sothathethatwillnotgivejustoccasiontothinkthatallgovernmentintheworldistheproductonlyofforceandviolence，andthatmenlivetogetherbynootherrulesbutthatofbeasts，wherethestrongestcarriesit，andsolayafoundationforperpetualdisorderandmischief，tumult，sedition，andrebellion（thingsthatthefollowersofthathypothesissoloudlycryoutagainst），mustofnecessityfindoutanotherriseofgovernment，anotheroriginalofpoliticalpower，andanotherwayofdesigningandknowingthepersonsthathaveitthanwhatSirRobertFilmerhathtaughtus。
　　2。Tothispurpose，IthinkitmaynotbeamisstosetdownwhatI
　　taketobepoliticalpower。Thatthepowerofamagistrateoverasubjectmaybedistinguishedfromthatofafatheroverhischildren，amasteroverhisservant，ahusbandoverhiswife，andalordoverhisslave。Allwhichdistinctpowershappeningsometimestogetherinthesameman，ifhebeconsideredunderthesedifferentrelations，itmayhelpustodistinguishthesepowersonefromanother，andshowthedifferencebetwixtarulerofacommonwealth，afatherofafamily，andacaptainofagalley。
　　3。Politicalpower，then，Itaketobearightofmakinglaws，withpenaltiesofdeath，andconsequentlyalllesspenaltiesfortheregulatingandpreservingofproperty，andofemployingtheforceofthecommunityintheexecutionofsuchlaws，andinthedefenceofthecommonwealthfromforeigninjury，andallthisonlyforthepublicgood。
　　ChapterII
　　OftheStateofNature4。Tounderstandpoliticalpoweraright，andderiveitfromitsoriginal，wemustconsiderwhatestateallmenarenaturallyin，andthatis，astateofperfectfreedomtoordertheiractions，anddisposeoftheirpossessionsandpersonsastheythinkfit，withintheboundsofthelawofNature，withoutaskingleaveordependinguponthewillofanyotherman。
　　Astatealsoofequality，whereinallthepowerandjurisdictionisreciprocal，noonehavingmorethananother，therebeingnothingmoreevidentthanthatcreaturesofthesamespeciesandrank，promiscuouslyborntoallthesameadvantagesofNature，andtheuseofthesamefaculties，shouldalsobeequaloneamongstanother，withoutsubordinationorsubjection，unlessthelordandmasterofthemallshould，byanymanifestdeclarationofhiswill，setoneaboveanother，andconferonhim，byanevidentandclearappointment，anundoubtedrighttodominionandsovereignty。
　　5。ThisequalityofmenbyNature，thejudiciousHookerlooksuponassoevidentinitself，andbeyondallquestion，thathemakesitthefoundationofthatobligationtomutualloveamongstmenonwhichhebuildsthedutiestheyoweoneanother，andfromwhencehederivesthegreatmaximsofjusticeandcharity。Hiswordsare：
　　"Thelikenaturalinducementhathbroughtmentoknowthatitisnolesstheirdutytoloveothersthanthemselves，forseeingthosethingswhichareequal，mustneedsallhaveonemeasure；ifIcannotbutwishtoreceivegood，evenasmuchateveryman’shands，asanymancanwishuntohisownsoul，howshouldIlooktohaveanypartofmydesirehereinsatisfied，unlessmyselfbecarefultosatisfythelikedesire，whichisundoubtedlyinothermenweak，beingofoneandthesamenature：tohaveanythingofferedthemrepugnanttothisdesiremustneeds，inallrespects，grievethemasmuchasme；sothatifIdoharm，Imustlooktosuffer，therebeingnoreasonthatothersshouldshowgreatermeasureoflovetomethantheyhavebymeshoweduntothem；mydesire，therefore，tobelovedofmyequalsinNature，asmuchaspossiblemaybe，imposethuponmeanaturaldutyofbearingtothemwardfullythelikeaffection。Fromwhichrelationofequalitybetweenourselvesandthemthatareasourselves，whatseveralrulesandcanonsnaturalreasonhathdrawnfordirectionoflifenomanisignorant。"（Eccl。Pol。i。）*
　　*RichardHooker，TheLawsofEcclesiasticalPolity。
　　6。Butthoughthisbeastateofliberty，yetitisnotastateoflicence；thoughmaninthatstatehaveanuncontrollablelibertytodisposeofhispersonorpossessions，yethehasnotlibertytodestroyhimself，orsomuchasanycreatureinhispossession，butwheresomenoblerusethanitsbarepreservationcallsforit。ThestateofNaturehasalawofNaturetogovernit，whichobligeseveryone，andreason，whichisthatlaw，teachesallmankindwhowillbutconsultit，thatbeingallequalandindependent，nooneoughttoharmanotherinhislife，health，libertyorpossessions；formenbeingalltheworkmanshipofoneomnipotentandinfinitelywiseMaker；
　　alltheservantsofonesovereignMaster，sentintotheworldbyHisorderandaboutHisbusiness；theyareHisproperty，whoseworkmanshiptheyaremadetolastduringHis，notoneanother’spleasure。And，beingfurnishedwithlikefaculties，sharingallinonecommunityofNature，therecannotbesupposedanysuchsubordinationamongusthatmayauthoriseustodestroyoneanother，asifweweremadeforoneanother’suses，astheinferiorranksofcreaturesareforours。
　　Everyoneasheisboundtopreservehimself，andnottoquithisstationwilfully，sobythelikereason，whenhisownpreservationcomesnotincompetition，oughtheasmuchashecantopreservetherestofmankind，andnotunlessitbetodojusticeonanoffender，takeawayorimpairthelife，orwhattendstothepreservationofthelife，theliberty，health，limb，orgoodsofanother。
　　7。Andthatallmenmayberestrainedfrominvadingothers’
　　rights，andfromdoinghurttooneanother，andthelawofNaturebeobserved，whichwilleththepeaceandpreservationofallmankind，theexecutionofthelawofNatureisinthatstateputintoeveryman’shands，wherebyeveryonehasarighttopunishthetransgressorsofthatlawtosuchadegreeasmayhinderitsviolation。ForthelawofNaturewould，asallotherlawsthatconcernmeninthisworld，beinvainiftherewerenobodythatinthestateofNaturehadapowertoexecutethatlaw，andtherebypreservetheinnocentandrestrainoffenders；andifanyoneinthestateofNaturemaypunishanotherforanyevilhehasdone，everyonemaydoso。Forinthatstateofperfectequality，wherenaturallythereisnosuperiorityorjurisdictionofoneoveranother，whatanymaydoinprosecutionofthatlaw，everyonemustneedshavearighttodo。
　　8。Andthus，inthestateofNature，onemancomesbyapoweroveranother，butyetnoabsoluteorarbitrarypowertouseacriminal，whenhehasgothiminhishands，accordingtothepassionateheatsorboundlessextravagancyofhisownwill，butonlytoretributetohimsofarascalmreasonandconsciencedictate，whatisproportionatetohistransgression，whichissomuchasmayserveforreparationandrestraint。Forthesetwoaretheonlyreasonswhyonemanmaylawfullydoharmtoanother，whichisthatwecallpunishment。IntransgressingthelawofNature，theoffenderdeclareshimselftolivebyanotherrulethanthatofreasonandcommonequity，whichisthatmeasureGodhassettotheactionsofmenfortheirmutualsecurity，andsohebecomesdangeroustomankind；thetiewhichistosecurethemfrominjuryandviolencebeingslightedandbrokenbyhim，whichbeingatrespassagainstthewholespecies，andthepeaceandsafetyofit，providedforbythelawofNature，everymanuponthisscore，bytherighthehathtopreservemankindingeneral，mayrestrain，orwhereitisnecessary，destroythingsnoxioustothem，andsomaybringsuchevilonanyonewhohathtransgressedthatlaw，asmaymakehimrepentthedoingofit，andtherebydeterhim，and，byhisexample，othersfromdoingthelikemischief。Andinthiscase，anduponthisground，everymanhatharighttopunishtheoffender，andbeexecutionerofthelawofNature。
　　9。Idoubtnotbutthiswillseemaverystrangedoctrinetosomemen；butbeforetheycondemnit，Idesirethemtoresolvemebywhatrightanyprinceorstatecanputtodeathorpunishanalienforanycrimehecommitsintheircountry？Itiscertaintheirlaws，byvirtueofanysanctiontheyreceivefromthepromulgatedwillofthelegislature，reachnotastranger。Theyspeaknottohim，nor，iftheydid，isheboundtohearkentothem。Thelegislativeauthoritybywhichtheyareinforceoverthesubjectsofthatcommonwealthhathnopoweroverhim。ThosewhohavethesupremepowerofmakinglawsinEngland，France，orHollandare，toanIndian，butliketherestoftheworld-menwithoutauthority。Andtherefore，ifbythelawofNatureeverymanhathnotapowertopunishoffencesagainstit，ashesoberlyjudgesthecasetorequire，Iseenothowthemagistratesofanycommunitycanpunishanalienofanothercountry，since，inreferencetohim，theycanhavenomorepowerthanwhateverymannaturallymayhaveoveranother。
　　10。Besidesthecrimewhichconsistsinviolatingthelaws，andvaryingfromtherightruleofreason，wherebyamansofarbecomesdegenerate，anddeclareshimselftoquittheprinciplesofhumannatureandtobeanoxiouscreature，thereiscommonlyinjurydone，andsomepersonorother，someotherman，receivesdamagebyhistransgression；inwhichcase，hewhohathreceivedanydamagehas（besidestherightofpunishmentcommontohim，withothermen）aparticularrighttoseekreparationfromhimthathathdoneit。Andanyotherpersonwhofindsitjustmayalsojoinwithhimthatisinjured，andassisthiminrecoveringfromtheoffendersomuchasmaymakesatisfactionfortheharmhehathsuffered。
　　11。Fromthesetwodistinctrights（theoneofpunishingthecrime，forrestraintandpreventingthelikeoffence，whichrightofpunishingisineverybody，theotheroftakingreparation，whichbelongsonlytotheinjuredparty）comesittopassthatthemagistrate，whobybeingmagistratehaththecommonrightofpunishingputintohishands，canoften，wherethepublicgooddemandsnottheexecutionofthelaw，remitthepunishmentofcriminaloffencesbyhisownauthority，butyetcannotremitthesatisfactionduetoanyprivatemanforthedamagehehasreceived。Thathewhohathsufferedthedamagehasarighttodemandinhisownname，andhealonecanremit。Thedamnifiedpersonhasthispowerofappropriatingtohimselfthegoodsorserviceoftheoffenderbyrightofself-preservation，aseverymanhasapowertopunishthecrimetopreventitsbeingcommittedagain，bytherighthehasofpreservingallmankind，anddoingallreasonablethingshecaninordertothatend。AndthusitisthateverymaninthestateofNaturehasapowertokillamurderer，bothtodeterothersfromdoingthelikeinjury（whichnoreparationcancompensate）bytheexampleofthepunishmentthatattendsitfromeverybody，andalsotosecuremenfromtheattemptsofacriminalwho，havingrenouncedreason，thecommonruleandmeasureGodhathgiventomankind，hath，bytheunjustviolenceandslaughterhehathcommitteduponone，declaredwaragainstallmankind，andthereforemaybedestroyedasalionoratiger，oneofthosewildsavagebeastswithwhommencanhavenosocietynorsecurity。Anduponthisisgroundedthatgreatlawofnature，"Whososheddethman’sblood，bymanshallhisbloodbeshed。"AndCainwassofullyconvincedthateveryonehadarighttodestroysuchacriminal，that，afterthemurderofhisbrother，hecriesout，"Everyonethatfindethmeshallslayme，"soplainwasitwritintheheartsofallmankind。
　　12。BythesamereasonmayamaninthestateofNaturepunishthelesserbreachesofthatlaw，itwill，perhaps，bedemanded，withdeath？Ianswer：Eachtransgressionmaybepunishedtothatdegree，andwithsomuchseverity，aswillsufficetomakeitanillbargaintotheoffender，givehimcausetorepent，andterrifyothersfromdoingthelike。EveryoffencethatcanbecommittedinthestateofNaturemay，inthestateofNature，bealsopunishedequally，andasfarforth，asitmay，inacommonwealth。ForthoughitwouldbebesidemypresentpurposetoenterhereintotheparticularsofthelawofNature，oritsmeasuresofpunishment，yetitiscertainthereissuchalaw，andthattooasintelligibleandplaintoarationalcreatureandastudierofthatlawasthepositivelawsofcommonwealths，nay，possiblyplainer；asmuchasreasoniseasiertobeunderstoodthanthefanciesandintricatecontrivancesofmen，followingcontraryandhiddeninterestsputintowords；fortrulysoareagreatpartofthemunicipallawsofcountries，whichareonlysofarrightastheyarefoundedonthelawofNature，bywhichtheyaretoberegulatedandinterpreted。
　　13。Tothisstrangedoctrine-viz。，ThatinthestateofNatureeveryonehastheexecutivepowerofthelawofNature-Idoubtnotbutitwillbeobjectedthatitisunreasonableformentobejudgesintheirowncases，thatself-lovewillmakemenpartialtothemselvesandtheirfriends；and，ontheotherside，ill-nature，passion，andrevengewillcarrythemtoofarinpunishingothers，andhencenothingbutconfusionanddisorderwillfollow，andthatthereforeGodhathcertainlyappointedgovernmenttorestrainthepartialityandviolenceofmen。IeasilygrantthatcivilgovernmentistheproperremedyfortheinconveniencesofthestateofNature，whichmustcertainlybegreatwheremenmaybejudgesintheirowncase，sinceitiseasytobeimaginedthathewhowassounjustastodohisbrotheraninjurywillscarcebesojustastocondemnhimselfforit。ButIshalldesirethosewhomakethisobjectiontorememberthatabsolutemonarchsarebutmen；andifgovernmentistobetheremedyofthoseevilswhichnecessarilyfollowfrommenbeingjudgesintheirowncases，andthestateofNatureisthereforenottobeendured，I
　　desiretoknowwhatkindofgovernmentthatis，andhowmuchbetteritisthanthestateofNature，whereonemancommandingamultitudehasthelibertytobejudgeinhisowncase，andmaydotoallhissubjectswhateverhepleaseswithouttheleastquestionorcontrolofthosewhoexecutehispleasure？andinwhatsoeverhedoth，whetherledbyreason，mistake，orpassion，mustbesubmittedto？
　　whichmeninthestateofNaturearenotboundtodoonetoanother。
　　Andifhethatjudges，judgesamissinhisownoranyothercase，heisanswerableforittotherestofmankind。
　　14。Itisoftenaskedasamightyobjection，whereare，oreverwere，thereanymeninsuchastateofNature？Towhichitmaysufficeasanansweratpresent，thatsinceallprincesandrulersof"independent"governmentsallthroughtheworldareinastateofNature，itisplaintheworldneverwas，norneverwillbe，withoutnumbersofmeninthatstate。Ihavenamedallgovernorsof"independent"communities，whethertheyare，orarenot，inleaguewithothers；foritisnoteverycompactthatputsanendtothestateofNaturebetweenmen，butonlythisoneofagreeingtogethermutuallytoenterintoonecommunity，andmakeonebodypolitic；otherpromisesandcompactsmenmaymakeonewithanother，andyetstillbeinthestateofNature。Thepromisesandbargainsfortruck，etc。，betweenthetwomeninSoldania，inorbetweenaSwissandanIndian，inthewoodsofAmerica，arebindingtothem，thoughtheyareperfectlyinastateofNatureinreferencetooneanotherfortruth，andkeepingoffaithbelongstomenasmen，andnotasmembersofsociety。
　　15。TothosethatsaytherewereneveranymeninthestateofNature，IwillnotopposetheauthorityofthejudiciousHooker（Eccl。
　　Pol。i。10），wherehesays，"thelawswhichhavebeenhithertomentioned"-i。e。，thelawsofNature-"dobindmenabsolutely，evenastheyaremen，althoughtheyhaveneveranysettledfellowship，neveranysolemnagreementamongstthemselveswhattodoornottodo；butforasmuchaswearenotbyourselvessufficienttofurnishourselveswithcompetentstoreofthingsneedfulforsuchalifeasourNaturedothdesire，alifefitforthedignityofman，thereforetosupplythosedefectsandimperfectionswhichareinus，aslivingsingleandsolelybyourselves，wearenaturallyinducedtoseekcommunionandfellowshipwithothers；thiswasthecauseofmenunitingthemselvesasfirstinpoliticsocieties。"ButI，moreover，affirmthatallmenarenaturallyinthatstate，andremainsotill，bytheirownconsents，theymakethemselvesmembersofsomepoliticsociety，andIdoubtnot，inthesequelofthisdiscourse，tomakeitveryclear。
　　ChapterIII
　　OftheStateofWar16。Thestateofwarisastateofenmityanddestruction；andthereforedeclaringbywordoraction，notapassionateandhasty，butsedate，settleddesignuponanotherman’slifeputshiminastateofwarwithhimagainstwhomhehasdeclaredsuchanintention，andsohasexposedhislifetotheother’spowertobetakenawaybyhim，oranyonethatjoinswithhiminhisdefence，andespouseshisquarrel；itbeingreasonableandjustIshouldhavearighttodestroythatwhichthreatensmewithdestruction；forbythefundamentallawofNature，manbeingtobepreservedasmuchaspossible，whenallcannotbepreserved，thesafetyoftheinnocentistobepreferred，andonemaydestroyamanwhomakeswaruponhim，orhasdiscoveredanenmitytohisbeing，forthesamereasonthathemaykillawolforalion，becausetheyarenotunderthetiesofthecommonlawofreason，havenootherrulebutthatofforceandviolence，andsomaybetreatedasabeastofprey，thosedangerousandnoxiouscreaturesthatwillbesuretodestroyhimwheneverhefallsintotheirpower。
　　17。Andhenceitisthathewhoattemptstogetanothermanintohisabsolutepowerdoestherebyputhimselfintoastateofwarwithhim；itbeingtobeunderstoodasadeclarationofadesignuponhislife。ForIhavereasontoconcludethathewhowouldgetmeintohispowerwithoutmyconsentwouldusemeashepleasedwhenhehadgotmethere，anddestroymetoowhenhehadafancytoit；fornobodycandesiretohavemeinhisabsolutepowerunlessitbetocompelmebyforcetothatwhichisagainsttherightofmyfreedom-i。e。
　　makemeaslave。Tobefreefromsuchforceistheonlysecurityofmypreservation，andreasonbidsmelookonhimasanenemytomypreservationwhowouldtakeawaythatfreedomwhichisthefencetoit；sothathewhomakesanattempttoenslavemetherebyputshimselfintoastateofwarwithme。HethatinthestateofNaturewouldtakeawaythefreedomthatbelongstoanyoneinthatstatemustnecessarilybesupposedtohaveadesigntotakeawayeverythingelse，thatfreedombeingthefoundationofalltherest；ashethatinthestateofsocietywouldtakeawaythefreedombelongingtothoseofthatsocietyorcommonwealthmustbesupposedtodesigntotakeawayfromthemeverythingelse，andsobelookedonasinastateofwar。
　　18。Thismakesitlawfulforamantokillathiefwhohasnotintheleasthurthim，nordeclaredanydesignuponhislife，anyfartherthanbytheuseofforce，sotogethiminhispowerastotakeawayhismoney，orwhathepleases，fromhim；becauseusingforce，wherehehasnorighttogetmeintohispower，lethispretencebewhatitwill，Ihavenoreasontosupposethathewhowouldtakeawaymylibertywouldnot，whenhehadmeinhispower，takeawayeverythingelse。And，therefore，itislawfulformetotreathimasonewhohasputhimselfintoastateofwarwithme-i。e。，killhimifI
　　can；fortothathazarddoeshejustlyexposehimselfwhoeverintroducesastateofwar，andisaggressorinit。
　　19。AndherewehavetheplaindifferencebetweenthestateofNatureandthestateofwar，whichhoweversomemenhaveconfounded，areasfardistantasastateofpeace，goodwill，mutualassistance，andpreservation；andastateofenmity，malice，violenceandmutualdestructionareonefromanother。Menlivingtogetheraccordingtoreasonwithoutacommonsuperioronearth，withauthoritytojudgebetweenthem，isproperlythestateofNature。Butforce，oradeclareddesignofforceuponthepersonofanother，wherethereisnocommonsuperioronearthtoappealtoforrelief，isthestateofwar；
　　anditisthewantofsuchanappealgivesamantherightofwarevenagainstanaggressor，thoughhebeinsocietyandafellow-subject。
　　Thus，athiefwhomIcannotharm，butbyappealtothelaw，forhavingstolenallthatIamworth，Imaykillwhenhesetsonmetorobmebutofmyhorseorcoat，becausethelaw，whichwasmadeformypreservation，whereitcannotinterposetosecuremylifefrompresentforce，whichiflostiscapableofnoreparation，permitsmemyowndefenceandtherightofwar，alibertytokilltheaggressor，becausetheaggressorallowsnottimetoappealtoourcommonjudge，northedecisionofthelaw，forremedyinacasewherethemischiefmaybeirreparable。WantofacommonjudgewithauthorityputsallmeninastateofNature；forcewithoutrightuponaman’spersonmakesastateofwarbothwherethereis，andisnot，acommonjudge。
　　20。Butwhentheactualforceisover，thestateofwarceasesbetweenthosethatareinsocietyandareequallyonbothsidessubjecttothejudge；and，therefore，insuchcontroversies，wherethequestionisput，"Whoshallbejudge？"itcannotbemeantwhoshalldecidethecontroversy；everyoneknowswhatJephthaheretellsus，that"theLordtheJudge"shalljudge。WherethereisnojudgeonearththeappealliestoGodinHeaven。Thatquestionthencannotmeanwhoshalljudge，whetheranotherhathputhimselfinastateofwarwithme，andwhetherImay，asJephthadid，appealtoHeaveninit？OfthatImyselfcanonlyjudgeinmyownconscience，asIwillansweritatthegreatdaytotheSupremeJudgeofallmen。
　　ChapterIV
　　OfSlavery21。Thenaturallibertyofmanistobefreefromanysuperiorpoweronearth，andnottobeunderthewillorlegislativeauthorityofman，buttohaveonlythelawofNatureforhisrule。Thelibertyofmaninsocietyistobeundernootherlegislativepowerbutthatestablishedbyconsentinthecommonwealth，norunderthedominionofanywill，orrestraintofanylaw，butwhatthatlegislativeshallenactaccordingtothetrustputinit。Freedom，then，isnotwhatSirRobertFilmertellsus："Alibertyforeveryonetodowhathelists，toliveashepleases，andnottobetiedbyanylaws"；
　　butfreedomofmenundergovernmentistohaveastandingruletoliveby，commontoeveryoneofthatsociety，andmadebythelegislativepowererectedinit。Alibertytofollowmyownwillinallthingswherethatruleprescribesnot，nottobesubjecttotheinconstant，uncertain，unknown，arbitrarywillofanotherman，asfreedomofnatureistobeundernootherrestraintbutthelawofNature。
　　22。Thisfreedomfromabsolute，arbitrarypowerissonecessaryto，andcloselyjoinedwith，aman’spreservation，thathecannotpartwithitbutbywhatforfeitshispreservationandlifetogether。Foraman，nothavingthepowerofhisownlife，cannotbycompactorhisownconsentenslavehimselftoanyone，norputhimselfundertheabsolute，arbitrarypowerofanothertotakeawayhislifewhenhepleases。Nobodycangivemorepowerthanhehashimself，andhethatcannottakeawayhisownlifecannotgiveanotherpoweroverit。
　　Indeed，havingbyhisfaultforfeitedhisownlifebysomeactthatdeservesdeath，hetowhomhehasforfeiteditmay，whenhehashiminhispower，delaytotakeit，andmakeuseofhimtohisownservice；
　　andhedoeshimnoinjurybyit。For，wheneverhefindsthehardshipofhisslaveryoutweighthevalueofhislife，itisinhispower，byresistingthewillofhismaster，todrawonhimselfthedeathhedesires。
　　23。Thisistheperfectconditionofslavery，whichisnothingelsebutthestateofwarcontinuedbetweenalawfulconquerorandacaptive，forifoncecompactenterbetweenthem，andmakeanagreementforalimitedpowerontheoneside，andobedienceontheother，thestateofwarandslaveryceasesaslongasthecompactendures；for，ashasbeensaid，nomancanbyagreementpassovertoanotherthatwhichhehathnotinhimself-apoweroverhisownlife。
　　Iconfess，wefindamongtheJews，aswellasothernations，thatmendidsellthemselves；butitisplainthiswasonlytodrudgery，nottoslavery；foritisevidentthepersonsoldwasnotunderanabsolute，arbitrary，despoticalpower，forthemastercouldnothavepowertokillhimatanytime，whomatacertaintimehewasobligedtoletgofreeoutofhisservice；andthemasterofsuchaservantwassofarfromhavinganarbitrarypoweroverhislifethathecouldnotatpleasuresomuchasmaimhim，butthelossofaneyeortoothsethimfree（Exod。21。）。
　　ChapterV
　　OfProperty24。Whetherweconsidernaturalreason，whichtellsusthatmen，beingonceborn，havearighttotheirpreservation，andconsequentlytomeatanddrinkandsuchotherthingsasNatureaffordsfortheirsubsistence，or"revelation，"whichgivesusanaccountofthosegrantsGodmadeoftheworldtoAdam，andtoNoahandhissons，itisveryclearthatGod，asKingDavidsays（Psalm115。16），"hasgiventheearthtothechildrenofmen，"givenittomankindincommon。But，thisbeingsupposed，itseemstosomeaverygreatdifficultyhowanyoneshouldevercometohaveapropertyinanything，Iwillnotcontentmyselftoanswer，that，ifitbedifficulttomakeout"property"uponasuppositionthatGodgavetheworldtoAdamandhisposterityincommon，itisimpossiblethatanymanbutoneuniversalmonarchshouldhaveany"property"uponasuppositionthatGodgavetheworldtoAdamandhisheirsinsuccession，exclusiveofalltherestofhisposterity；butIshallendeavourtoshowhowmenmightcometohaveapropertyinseveralpartsofthatwhichGodgavetomankindincommon，andthatwithoutanyexpresscompactofallthecommoners。
　　25。God，whohathgiventheworldtomenincommon，hathalsogiventhemreasontomakeuseofittothebestadvantageoflifeandconvenience。Theearthandallthatisthereinisgiventomenforthesupportandcomfortoftheirbeing。Andthoughallthefruitsitnaturallyproduces，andbeastsitfeeds，belongtomankindincommon，astheyareproducedbythespontaneoushandofNature，andnobodyhasoriginallyaprivatedominionexclusiveoftherestofmankindinanyofthem，astheyarethusintheirnaturalstate，yetbeinggivenfortheuseofmen，theremustofnecessitybeameanstoappropriatethemsomewayorotherbeforetheycanbeofanyuse，oratallbeneficial，toanyparticularmen。ThefruitorvenisonwhichnourishesthewildIndian，whoknowsnoenclosure，andisstillatenantincommon，mustbehis，andsohis-i。e。，apartofhim，thatanothercannolongerhaveanyrighttoitbeforeitcandohimanygoodforthesupportofhislife。
　　26。Thoughtheearthandallinferiorcreaturesbecommontoallmen，yeteverymanhasa"property"inhisown"person。"Thisnobodyhasanyrighttobuthimself。The"labour"ofhisbodyandthe"work"ofhishands，wemaysay，areproperlyhis。Whatsoever，then，heremovesoutofthestatethatNaturehathprovidedandleftitin，hehathmixedhislabourwithit，andjoinedtoitsomethingthatishisown，andtherebymakesithisproperty。ItbeingbyhimremovedfromthecommonstateNatureplaceditin，ithathbythislaboursomethingannexedtoitthatexcludesthecommonrightofothermen。Forthis"labour"beingtheunquestionablepropertyofthelabourer，nomanbuthecanhavearighttowhatthatisoncejoinedto，atleastwherethereisenough，andasgoodleftincommonforothers。
　　27。Hethatisnourishedbytheacornshepickedupunderanoak，ortheappleshegatheredfromthetreesinthewood，hascertainlyappropriatedthemtohimself。Nobodycandenybutthenourishmentishis。Iask，then，whendidtheybegintobehis？whenhedigested？
　　orwhenheate？orwhenheboiled？orwhenhebroughtthemhome？orwhenhepickedthemup？Anditisplain，ifthefirstgatheringmadethemnothis，nothingelsecould。Thatlabourputadistinctionbetweenthemandcommon。ThataddedsomethingtothemmorethanNature，thecommonmotherofall，haddone，andsotheybecamehisprivateright。Andwillanyonesayhehadnorighttothoseacornsorappleshethusappropriatedbecausehehadnottheconsentofallmankindtomakethemhis？Wasitarobberythustoassumetohimselfwhatbelongedtoallincommon？Ifsuchaconsentasthatwasnecessary，manhadstarved，notwithstandingtheplentyGodhadgivenhim。Weseeincommons，whichremainsobycompact，thatitisthetakinganypartofwhatiscommon，andremovingitoutofthestateNatureleavesitin，whichbeginstheproperty，withoutwhichthecommonisofnouse。Andthetakingofthisorthatpartdoesnotdependontheexpressconsentofallthecommoners。Thus，thegrassmyhorsehasbit，theturfsmyservanthascut，andtheoreIhavediggedinanyplace，whereIhavearighttothemincommonwithothers，becomemypropertywithouttheassignationorconsentofanybody。
　　Thelabourthatwasmine，removingthemoutofthatcommonstatetheywerein，hathfixedmypropertyinthem。
　　28。Bymakinganexplicitconsentofeverycommonernecessarytoanyone’sappropriatingtohimselfanypartofwhatisgivenincommon。
　　Childrenorservantscouldnotcutthemeatwhichtheirfatherormasterhadprovidedforthemincommonwithoutassigningtoeveryonehispeculiarpart。Thoughthewaterrunninginthefountainbeeveryone’s，yetwhocandoubtbutthatinthepitcherishisonlywhodrewitout？HislabourhathtakenitoutofthehandsofNaturewhereitwascommon，andbelongedequallytoallherchildren，andhaththerebyappropriatedittohimself。
　　29。ThusthislawofreasonmakesthedeerthatIndian’swhohathkilledit；itisallowedtobehisgoodswhohathbestowedhislabouruponit，though，before，itwasthecommonrightofeveryone。Andamongstthosewhoarecountedthecivilisedpartofmankind，whohavemadeandmultipliedpositivelawstodetermineproperty，thisoriginallawofNatureforthebeginningofproperty，inwhatwasbeforecommon，stilltakesplace，andbyvirtuethereof，whatfishanyonecatchesintheocean，thatgreatandstillremainingcommonofmankind；orwhatamber-grisanyonetakesuphereisbythelabourthatremovesitoutofthatcommonstateNatureleftitin，madehispropertywhotakesthatpainsaboutit。Andevenamongstus，theharethatanyoneishuntingisthoughthiswhopursuesherduringthechase。Forbeingabeastthatisstilllookeduponascommon，andnoman’sprivatepossession，whoeverhasemployedsomuchlabouraboutanyofthatkindastofindandpursueherhastherebyremovedherfromthestateofNaturewhereinshewascommon，andhathbegunaproperty。
　　30。Itwill，perhaps，beobjectedtothis，thatifgatheringtheacornsorotherfruitsoftheearth，etc。，makesarighttothem，thenanyonemayengrossasmuchashewill。TowhichIanswer，Notso。ThesamelawofNaturethatdoesbythismeansgiveusproperty，doesalsoboundthatpropertytoo。"Godhasgivenusallthingsrichly。"Isthevoiceofreasonconfirmedbyinspiration？ButhowfarhasHegivenitus-"toenjoy"？Asmuchasanyonecanmakeuseoftoanyadvantageoflifebeforeitspoils，somuchhemaybyhislabourfixapropertyin。Whateverisbeyondthisismorethanhisshare，andbelongstoothers。NothingwasmadebyGodformantospoilordestroy。Andthusconsideringtheplentyofnaturalprovisionstherewasalongtimeintheworld，andthefewspenders，andtohowsmallapartofthatprovisiontheindustryofonemancouldextenditselfandengrossittotheprejudiceofothers，especiallykeepingwithintheboundssetbyreasonofwhatmightserveforhisuse，therecouldbethenlittleroomforquarrelsorcontentionsaboutpropertysoestablished。
　　31。Butthechiefmatterofpropertybeingnownotthefruitsoftheearthandthebeaststhatsubsistonit，buttheearthitself，asthatwhichtakesinandcarrieswithitalltherest，Ithinkitisplainthatpropertyinthattooisacquiredastheformer。Asmuchlandasamantills，plants，improves，cultivates，andcanusetheproductof，somuchishisproperty。Hebyhislabourdoes，asitwere，encloseitfromthecommon。Norwillitinvalidatehisrighttosayeverybodyelsehasanequaltitletoit，andthereforehecannotappropriate，hecannotenclose，withouttheconsentofallhisfellow-commoners，allmankind。God，whenHegavetheworldincommontoallmankind，commandedmanalsotolabour，andthepenuryofhisconditionrequireditofhim。Godandhisreasoncommandedhimtosubduetheearth-i。e。，improveitforthebenefitoflifeandthereinlayoutsomethinguponitthatwashisown，hislabour。Hethat，inobediencetothiscommandofGod，subdued，tilled，andsowedanypartofit，therebyannexedtoitsomethingthatwashisproperty，whichanotherhadnotitleto，norcouldwithoutinjurytakefromhim。
　　32。Norwasthisappropriationofanyparcelofland，byimprovingit，anyprejudicetoanyotherman，sincetherewasstillenoughandasgoodleft，andmorethantheyetunprovidedcoulduse。Sothat，ineffect，therewasneverthelessleftforothersbecauseofhisenclosureforhimself。Forhethatleavesasmuchasanothercanmakeuseofdoesasgoodastakenothingatall。Nobodycouldthinkhimselfinjuredbythedrinkingofanotherman，thoughhetookagooddraught，whohadawholeriverofthesamewaterlefthimtoquenchhisthirst。Andthecaseoflandandwater，wherethereisenoughofboth，isperfectlythesame。
　　33。Godgavetheworldtomenincommon，butsinceHegaveitthemfortheirbenefitandthegreatestconvenienciesoflifetheywerecapabletodrawfromit，itcannotbesupposedHemeantitshouldalwaysremaincommonanduncultivated。Hegaveittotheuseoftheindustriousandrational（andlabourwastobehistitletoit）；nottothefancyorcovetousnessofthequarrelsomeandcontentious。Hethathadasgoodleftforhisimprovementaswasalreadytakenupneedednotcomplain，oughtnottomeddlewithwhatwasalreadyimprovedbyanother’slabour；ifhediditisplainhedesiredthebenefitofanother’spains，whichhehadnorightto，andnotthegroundwhichGodhadgivenhim，incommonwithothers，tolabouron，andwhereoftherewasasgoodleftasthatalreadypossessed，andmorethanheknewwhattodowith，orhisindustrycouldreachto。
　　34。Itistrue，inlandthatiscommoninEnglandoranyothercountry，wherethereareplentyofpeopleundergovernmentwhohavemoneyandcommerce，noonecanencloseorappropriateanypartwithouttheconsentofallhisfellow-commoners；becausethisisleftcommonbycompact-i。e。，bythelawoftheland，whichisnottobeviolated。
　　And，thoughitbecommoninrespectofsomemen，itisnotsotoallmankind，butisthejointproprietyofthiscountry，orthisparish。
　　Besides，theremainder，aftersuchenclosure，wouldnotbeasgoodtotherestofthecommonersasthewholewas，whentheycouldallmakeuseofthewhole；whereasinthebeginningandfirstpeoplingofthegreatcommonoftheworlditwasquiteotherwise。Thelawmanwasunderwasratherforappropriating。Godcommanded，andhiswantsforcedhimtolabour。Thatwashisproperty，whichcouldnotbetakenfromhimwhereverhehadfixedit。Andhencesubduingorcultivatingtheearthandhavingdominion，wesee，arejoinedtogether。Theonegavetitletotheother。SothatGod，bycommandingtosubdue，gaveauthoritysofartoappropriate。Andtheconditionofhumanlife，whichrequireslabourandmaterialstoworkon，necessarilyintroduceprivatepossessions。
　　35。ThemeasureofpropertyNaturewellset，bytheextentofmen’slabourandtheconveniencyoflife。Noman’slabourcouldsubdueorappropriateall，norcouldhisenjoymentconsumemorethanasmallpart；sothatitwasimpossibleforanyman，thisway，toentrenchupontherightofanotheroracquiretohimselfapropertytotheprejudiceofhisneighbour，whowouldstillhaveroomforasgoodandaslargeapossession（aftertheotherhadtakenouthis）
　　asbeforeitwasappropriated。Whichmeasuredidconfineeveryman’spossessiontoaverymoderateproportion，andsuchashemightappropriatetohimselfwithoutinjurytoanybodyinthefirstagesoftheworld，whenmenweremoreindangertobelost，bywanderingfromtheircompany，inthethenvastwildernessoftheearththantobestraitenedforwantofroomtoplantin。
　　36。Thesamemeasuremaybeallowedstill，withoutprejudicetoanybody，fullastheworldseems。For，supposingamanorfamily，inthestatetheywereatfirst，peoplingoftheworldbythechildrenofAdamorNoah，lethimplantinsomeinlandvacantplacesofAmerica。
　　Weshallfindthatthepossessionshecouldmakehimself，uponthemeasureswehavegiven，wouldnotbeverylarge，nor，eventothisday，prejudicetherestofmankindorgivethemreasontocomplainorthinkthemselvesinjuredbythisman’sencroachment，thoughtheraceofmenhavenowspreadthemselvestoallthecornersoftheworld，anddoinfinitelyexceedthesmallnumberwasatthebeginning。
　　Nay，theextentofgroundisofsolittlevaluewithoutlabourthatIhavehearditaffirmedthatinSpainitselfamanmaybepermittedtoplough，sow，andreap，withoutbeingdisturbed，uponlandhehasnoothertitleto，butonlyhismakinguseofit。But，onthecontrary，theinhabitantsthinkthemselvesbeholdentohimwho，byhisindustryonneglected，andconsequentlywasteland，hasincreasedthestockofcorn，whichtheywanted。Butbethisasitwill，whichIlaynostresson，thisIdareboldlyaffirm，thatthesameruleofpropriety-viz。，thateverymanshouldhaveasmuchashecouldmakeuseof，wouldholdstillintheworld，withoutstraiteninganybody，sincethereislandenoughintheworldtosufficedoubletheinhabitants，hadnottheinventionofmoney，andthetacitagreementofmentoputavalueonit，introduced（byconsent）largerpossessionsandarighttothem；which，howithasdone，Ishallbyandbyshowmoreatlarge。
　　37。Thisiscertain，thatinthebeginning，beforethedesireofhavingmorethanmenneededhadalteredtheintrinsicvalueofthings，whichdependsonlyontheirusefulnesstothelifeofman，orhadagreedthatalittlepieceofyellowmetal，whichwouldkeepwithoutwastingordecay，shouldbeworthagreatpieceoffleshorawholeheapofcorn，thoughmenhadarighttoappropriatebytheirlabour，eachonetohimself，asmuchofthethingsofNatureashecoulduse，yetthiscouldnotbemuch，nortotheprejudiceofothers，wherethesameplentywasstillleft，tothosewhowouldusethesameindustry。
　　Beforetheappropriationofland，hewhogatheredasmuchofthewildfruit，killed，caught，ortamedasmanyofthebeastsashecould-hethatsoemployedhispainsaboutanyofthespontaneousproductsofNatureasanywaytoalterthemfromthestateNatureputthemin，byplacinganyofhislabouronthem，didtherebyacquireaproprietyinthem；butiftheyperishedinhispossessionwithouttheirdueuse-ifthefruitsrottedorthevenisonputrefiedbeforehecouldspendit，heoffendedagainstthecommonlawofNature，andwasliabletobepunished：heinvadedhisneighbour’sshare，forhehadnorightfartherthanhisusecalledforanyofthem，andtheymightservetoaffordhimconvenienciesoflife。
　　38。Thesamemeasuresgovernedthepossessionofland，too。
　　Whatsoeverhetilledandreaped，laidupandmadeuseofbeforeitspoiled，thatwashispeculiarright；whatsoeverheenclosed，andcouldfeedandmakeuseof，thecattleandproductwasalsohis。Butifeitherthegrassofhisenclosurerottedontheground，orthefruitofhisplantingperishedwithoutgatheringandlayingup，thispartoftheearth，notwithstandinghisenclosure，wasstilltobelookedonaswaste，andmightbethepossessionofanyother。Thus，atthebeginning，Cainmighttakeasmuchgroundashecouldtillandmakeithisownland，andyetleaveenoughtoAbel’ssheeptofeedon：
　　afewacreswouldserveforboththeirpossessions。Butasfamiliesincreasedandindustryenlargedtheirstocks，theirpossessionsenlargedwiththeneedofthem；butyetitwascommonlywithoutanyfixedpropertyinthegroundtheymadeuseoftilltheyincorporated，settledthemselvestogether，andbuiltcities，andthen，byconsent，theycameintimetosetouttheboundsoftheirdistinctterritoriesandagreeonlimitsbetweenthemandtheirneighbours，andbylawswithinthemselvessettledthepropertiesofthoseofthesamesociety。Forweseethatinthatpartoftheworldwhichwasfirstinhabited，andthereforeliketobebestpeopled，evenaslowdownasAbraham’stime，theywanderedwiththeirflocksandtheirherds，whichwastheirsubstance，freelyupanddown-andthisAbrahamdidinacountrywherehewasastranger；whenceitisplainthat，atleast，agreatpartofthelandlayincommon，thattheinhabitantsvalueditnot，norclaimedpropertyinanymorethantheymadeuseof；butwhentherewasnotroomenoughinthesameplacefortheirherdstofeedtogether，they，byconsent，asAbrahamandLotdid（Gen。xiii。5），separatedandenlargedtheirpasturewhereitbestlikedthem。Andforthesamereason，Esauwentfromhisfatherandhisbrother，andplantedinMountSeir（Gen。36。6）。
　　39。Andthus，withoutsupposinganyprivatedominionandpropertyinAdamoveralltheworld，exclusiveofallothermen，whichcannowaybeproved，noranyone’spropertybemadeoutfromit，butsupposingtheworld，givenasitwastothechildrenofmenincommon，weseehowlabourcouldmakemendistincttitlestoseveralparcelsofitfortheirprivateuses，whereintherecouldbenodoubtofright，noroomforquarrel。
　　40。Norisitsostrangeas，perhaps，beforeconsideration，itmayappear，thatthepropertyoflabourshouldbeabletooverbalancethecommunityofland，foritislabourindeedthatputsthedifferenceofvalueoneverything；andletanyoneconsiderwhatthedifferenceisbetweenanacreoflandplantedwithtobaccoorsugar，sownwithwheatorbarley，andanacreofthesamelandlyingincommonwithoutanyhusbandryuponit，andhewillfindthattheimprovementoflabourmakesthefargreaterpartofthevalue。Ithinkitwillbebutaverymodestcomputationtosay，thatoftheproductsoftheearthusefultothelifeofman，nine-tenthsaretheeffectsoflabour。Nay，ifwewillrightlyestimatethingsastheycometoouruse，andcastuptheseveralexpensesaboutthem-whatinthemispurelyowingtoNatureandwhattolabour-weshallfindthatinmostofthemninety-ninehundredthsarewhollytobeputontheaccountoflabour。
　　41。TherecannotbeaclearerdemonstrationofanythingthanseveralnationsoftheAmericansareofthis，whoarerichinlandandpoorinallthecomfortsoflife；whomNature，havingfurnishedasliberallyasanyotherpeoplewiththematerialsofplenty-i。e。，afruitfulsoil，apttoproduceinabundancewhatmightserveforfood，raiment，anddelight；yet，forwantofimprovingitbylabour，havenotonehundredthpartoftheconvenienciesweenjoy，andakingofalargeandfruitfulterritorytherefeeds，lodges，andiscladworsethanadaylabourerinEngland。
　　42。Tomakethisalittleclearer，letusbuttracesomeoftheordinaryprovisionsoflife，throughtheirseveralprogresses，beforetheycometoouruse，andseehowmuchtheyreceiveoftheirvaluefromhumanindustry。Bread，wine，andclotharethingsofdailyuseandgreatplenty；yetnotwithstandingacorns，water，andleaves，orskinsmustbeourbread，drinkandclothing，didnotlabourfurnishuswiththesemoreusefulcommodities。Forwhateverbreadismoreworththanacorns，winethanwater，andclothorsilkthanleaves，skinsormoss，thatiswhollyowingtolabourandindustry。
　　TheoneofthesebeingthefoodandraimentwhichunassistedNaturefurnishesuswith；theotherprovisionswhichourindustryandpainsprepareforus，whichhowmuchtheyexceedtheotherinvalue，whenanyonehathcomputed，hewillthenseehowmuchlabourmakesthefargreatestpartofthevalueofthingsweenjoyinthisworld；andthegroundwhichproducesthematerialsisscarcetobereckonedinasany，oratmost，butaverysmallpartofit；solittle，thatevenamongstus，landthatisleftwhollytonature，thathathnoimprovementofpasturage，tillage，orplanting，iscalled，asindeeditis，waste；andweshallfindthebenefitofitamounttolittlemorethannothing。
　　43。Anacreoflandthatbearsheretwentybushelsofwheat，andanotherinAmerica，which，withthesamehusbandry，woulddothelike，are，withoutdoubt，ofthesamenatural，intrinsicvalue。Butyetthebenefitmankindreceivesfromoneinayearisworthfivepounds，andtheotherpossiblynotworthapenny；ifalltheprofitanIndianreceivedfromitweretobevaluedandsoldhere，atleastI
　　maytrulysay，notonethousandth。Itislabour，then，whichputsthegreatestpartofvalueuponland，withoutwhichitwouldscarcelybeworthanything；itistothatweowethegreatestpartofallitsusefulproducts；forallthatthestraw，bran，bread，ofthatacreofwheat，ismoreworththantheproductofanacreofasgoodlandwhichlieswasteisalltheeffectoflabour。Foritisnotbarelytheploughman’spains，thereaper’sandthresher’stoil，andthebaker’ssweat，istobecountedintothebreadweeat；thelabourofthosewhobroketheoxen，whodiggedandwroughttheironandstones，whofelledandframedthetimberemployedabouttheplough，mill，oven，oranyotherutensils，whichareavastnumber，requisitetothiscorn，fromitssowingtoitsbeingmadebread，mustallbechargedontheaccountoflabour，andreceivedasaneffectofthat；Natureandtheearthfurnishedonlythealmostworthlessmaterialsasinthemselves。Itwouldbeastrangecatalogueofthingsthatindustryprovidedandmadeuseofabouteveryloafofbreadbeforeitcametoouruseifwecouldtracethem；
　　iron，wood，leather，bark，timber，stone，bricks，coals，lime，cloth，dyeing-drugs，pitch，tar，masts，ropes，andallthematerialsmadeuseofintheshipthatbroughtanyofthecommoditiesmadeuseofbyanyoftheworkmen，toanypartofthework，allwhichitwouldbealmostimpossible，atleasttoolong，toreckonup。
　　44。Fromallwhichitisevident，thatthoughthethingsofNaturearegivenincommon，man（bybeingmasterofhimself，andproprietorofhisownperson，andtheactionsorlabourofit）hadstillinhimselfthegreatfoundationofproperty；andthatwhichmadeupthegreatpartofwhatheappliedtothesupportorcomfortofhisbeing，wheninventionandartshadimprovedtheconveniencesoflife，wasperfectlyhisown，anddidnotbelongincommontoothers。
　　45。Thuslabour，inthebeginning，gavearightofproperty，whereveranyonewaspleasedtoemployit，uponwhatwascommon，whichremainedalongwhile，thefargreaterpart，andisyetmorethanmankindmakesuseofMenatfirst，forthemostpart，contentedthemselveswithwhatunassistedNatureofferedtotheirnecessities；
　　andthoughafterwards，insomepartsoftheworld，wheretheincreaseofpeopleandstock，withtheuseofmoney，hadmadelandscarce，andsoofsomevalue，theseveralcommunitiessettledtheboundsoftheirdistinctterritories，and，bylaws，withinthemselves，regulatedthepropertiesoftheprivatemenoftheirsociety，andso，bycompactandagreement，settledthepropertywhichlabourandindustrybegan。Andtheleaguesthathavebeenmadebetweenseveralstatesandkingdoms，eitherexpresslyortacitlydisowningallclaimandrighttothelandintheother’spossession，have，bycommonconsent，givenuptheirpretencestotheirnaturalcommonright，whichoriginallytheyhadtothosecountries；andsohave，bypositiveagreement，settledapropertyamongstthemselves，indistinctpartsoftheworld；yettherearestillgreattractsofgroundtobefound，whichtheinhabitantsthereof，nothavingjoinedwiththerestofmankindintheconsentoftheuseoftheircommonmoney，liewaste，andaremorethanthepeoplewhodwellonit，do，orcanmakeuseof，andsostilllieincommon；thoughthiscanscarcehappenamongstthatpartofmankindthathaveconsentedtotheuseofmoney。
　　46。Thegreatestpartofthingsreallyusefultothelifeofman，andsuchasthenecessityofsubsistingmadethefirstcommonersoftheworldlookafter-asitdoththeAmericansnow-aregenerallythingsofshortduration，suchas-iftheyarenotconsumedbyuse-
　　willdecayandperishofthemselves。Gold，silver，anddiamondsarethingsthatfancyoragreementhathputthevalueon，morethanrealuseandthenecessarysupportoflife。NowofthosegoodthingswhichNaturehathprovidedincommon，everyonehatharight（ashathbeensaid）toasmuchashecoulduse；andhadapropertyinallhecouldeffectwithhislabour；allthathisindustrycouldextendto，toalterfromthestateNaturehadputitin，washis。Hethatgatheredahundredbushelsofacornsorappleshadtherebyapropertyinthem；theywerehisgoodsassoonasgathered。Hewasonlytolookthatheusedthembeforetheyspoiled，elsehetookmorethanhisshare，androbbedothers。And，indeed，itwasafoolishthing，aswellasdishonest，tohoardupmorethanhecouldmakeuseofIfhegaveawayaparttoanybodyelse，sothatitperishednotuselesslyinhispossession，thesehealsomadeuseofAndifhealsobarteredawayplumsthatwouldhaverottedinaweek，fornutsthatwouldlastgoodforhiseatingawholeyear，hedidnoinjury；hewastednotthecommonstock；destroyednopartoftheportionofgoodsthatbelongedtoothers，solongasnothingperisheduselesslyinhishands。Again，ifhewouldgivehisnutsforapieceofmetal，pleasedwithitscolour，orexchangehissheepforshells，orwoolforasparklingpebbleoradiamond，andkeepthosebyhimallhislife，heinvadednottherightofothers；hemightheapupasmuchofthesedurablethingsashepleased；theexceedingoftheboundsofhisjustpropertynotlyinginthelargenessofhispossession，buttheperishingofanythinguselesslyinit。
　　47。Andthuscameintheuseofmoney；somelastingthingthatmenmightkeepwithoutspoiling，andthat，bymutualconsent，menwouldtakeinexchangeforthetrulyusefulbutperishablesupportsoflife。
　　48。Andasdifferentdegreesofindustrywereapttogivemenpossessionsindifferentproportions，sothisinventionofmoneygavethemtheopportunitytocontinueandenlargethem。Forsupposinganisland，separatefromallpossiblecommercewiththerestoftheworld，whereintherewerebutahundredfamilies，butthereweresheep，horses，andcows，withotherusefulanimals，wholesomefruits，andlandenoughforcornforahundredthousandtimesasmany，butnothingintheisland，eitherbecauseofitscommonnessorperishableness，fittosupplytheplaceofmoney。Whatreasoncouldanyonehavetheretoenlargehispossessionsbeyondtheuseofhisfamily，andaplentifulsupplytoitsconsumption，eitherinwhattheirownindustryproduced，ortheycouldbarterforlikeperishable，usefulcommoditieswithothers？Wherethereisnotsomethingbothlastingandscarce，andsovaluabletobehoardedup，theremenwillnotbeapttoenlargetheirpossessionsofland，wereitneversorich，neversofreeforthemtotake。ForIask，whatwouldamanvaluetenthousandoranhundredthousandacresofexcellentland，readycultivatedandwellstocked，too，withcattle，inthemiddleoftheinlandpartsofAmerica，wherehehadnohopesofcommercewithotherpartsoftheworld，todrawmoneytohimbythesaleoftheproduct？Itwouldnotbeworththeenclosing，andweshouldseehimgiveupagaintothewildcommonofNaturewhateverwasmorethanwouldsupplytheconveniencesoflife，tobehadthereforhimandhisfamily。
　　49。Thus，inthebeginning，alltheworldwasAmerica，andmoresothanthatisnow；fornosuchthingasmoneywasanywhereknown。
　　Findoutsomethingthathaththeuseandvalueofmoneyamongsthisneighbours，youshallseethesamemanwillbeginpresentlytoenlargehispossessions。
　　50。But，sincegoldandsilver，beinglittleusefultothelifeofman，inproportiontofood，raiment，andcarriage，hasitsvalueonlyfromtheconsentofmen-whereoflabouryetmakesingreatpartthemeasure-itisplainthattheconsentofmenhaveagreedtoadisproportionateandunequalpossessionoftheearth-Imeanoutoftheboundsofsocietyandcompact；foringovernmentsthelawsregulateit；theyhaving，byconsent，foundoutandagreedinawayhowamanmay，rightfullyandwithoutinjury，possessmorethanhehimselfcanmakeuseofbyreceivinggoldandsilver，whichmaycontinuelonginaman’spossessionwithoutdecayingfortheoverplus，andagreeingthosemetalsshouldhaveavalue。
　　51。Andthus，Ithink，itisveryeasytoconceive，withoutanydifficulty，howlabourcouldatfirstbeginatitleofpropertyinthecommonthingsofNature，andhowthespendingituponourusesboundedit；sothattherecouldthenbenoreasonofquarrellingabouttitle，noranydoubtaboutthelargenessofpossessionitgave。Rightandconveniencywenttogether。Forasamanhadarighttoallhecouldemployhislabourupon，sohehadnotemptationtolabourformorethanhecouldmakeuseof。Thisleftnoroomforcontroversyaboutthetitle，norforencroachmentontherightofothers。Whatportionamancarvedtohimselfwaseasilyseen；anditwasuseless，aswellasdishonest，tocarvehimselftoomuch，ortakemorethanheneeded。

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