BIBLIOGRAPHICALNOTE
　　THEHISPANICNATIONSOFTHENEWWORLD
　　CHAPTERI。THEHERITAGEFROMSPAINANDPORTUGAL
　　AtthetimeoftheAmericanRevolutionmostoftheNewWorldstillbelongedtoSpainandPortugal，whosecaptainsandconquerorshadbeenthefirsttocometoitsshores。Spainhadthelion’sshare，butPortugalheldBrazil，initselfavastlandofunsuspectedresources。NoempiremankindhadeveryetknownrivaledinsizetheillimitabledomainsofSpainandPortugalintheNewWorld;andnonedisplayedsuchremarkablecontrastsinlandandpeople。Boundlessplainsandforests，swampsanddeserts，mightymountainchains，torrentialstreamsandmajesticrivers，markedthesurfaceofthecountry。ThisvastterritorystretchedfromthetemperateprairieswestoftheMississippidowntothesteaminglowlandsofCentralAmerica，thenupthroughtablelandsinthesoutherncontinenttohighplateaus，milesabovesealevel，wherethesunblazedandthecold，dryairwashardtobreathe，andthenhigherstilltotheloftypeaksoftheAndes，cladineternalsnoworpouringfireandsmokefromtheirsummitsintheclouds，andthencetothelowertemperatevalleys，grassypampas，andundulatinghillsofthefarsouth。
　　ScatteredoverthesevastcolonialdomainsintheWesternWorldweresomewherebetween12，000，000and19，000，000peoplesubjecttoSpain，andperhaps3，000，000，toPortugal;thegreatmajorityofthemwereIndiansandnegroes，thelatterpredominatinginthelandsborderingontheCaribbeanSeaandalongtheshoresofBrazil。Possiblyone—fourthoftheinhabitantscameofEuropeanstock，includingnotonlySpaniardsandtheirdescendantsbutalsothefolkwhospokeEnglishintheFloridasandFrenchinLouisiana。
　　DuringthecenturieswhichhadelapsedsincetheentryoftheSpaniardsandPortugueseintotheseregionsanextraordinaryfusionofraceshadtakenplace。White，red，andblackhadmingledtosuchanextentthatthebulkofthesettledpopulationbecamehalf—caste。Onlyinthemoretemperateregionsofthefarnorthandsouth，wheretheaborigineswerecomparativelyfeworhaddisappearedaltogether，didthewhitesremainraciallydistinct。SociallytheIndianandthenegrocountedforlittle。
　　Theyconstitutedthelaboringclassonwhomalltheburdensfellandforwhomadvantagesinthebodypoliticwerescant。LegallytheIndianunderSpanishrulestoodonafootingofequalitywithhiswhitefellows，andmanyagiftednativecametobereckonedaforceinthecommunity，thoughhissocialpositionremainedasubordinateone。MostofthenegroeswereslavesandweremorekindlytreatedbytheSpaniardsthanbythePortuguese。
　　Thoughdividedamongthemselves，theEuropeanswereeverywherepoliticallydominant。TheSpaniardwasalwaysanindividualist。
　　Besides，heoftenbroughtfromtheOldWorldpettyprovincialtraditionswhichwereintensifiedintheNew。Theinhabitantsoftowns，manyofwhichhadbeenfoundedquiteindependentlyofoneanother，knewlittleabouttheirremoteneighborsandoftenwerequitewillingtoconverttheirignoranceintoprejudice：Thedwellerintheuplandsandtheresidentonthecoastwerewonttovieweachotherwithdisfavor。Theonewasthoughtheavyandstupid，theotherfrivolousandlazy。NativeSpaniardsregardedtheCreoles，orAmericanborn，aspersonswhohaddegeneratedmoreorlessbytheircontactwiththeaboriginesandthewilderness。Fortheirpart，theCreoleslookedupontheSpaniardsasupstartsandintruders，whosesoleclaimtoconsiderationlayintheprivilegesdispensedthembythehomegovernment。Intestimonyofthisattitudetheycoinedfortheiroverseakindrednumerousnicknameswhichweremoreexpressivethancomplimentary。
　　WhiletheCreolesheldmostofthewealthandoftheloweroffices，theSpaniardsenjoyedtheperquisitesandemolumentsofthehigherposts。
　　Thoughobjectsofdisdaintoboththesemasters，theIndiansgenerallypreferredtheSpaniardtotheCreole。TheSpaniardrepresentedadistantauthorityinterestedinthewelfareofitshumblersubjectsandcamelessintoactualdailycontactwiththenatives。WhileitwouldhardlybecorrecttosaythattheSpaniardwasviewedasaprotectorandtheCreoleasanoppressor，yettheaboriginesunconsciouslymadesomesuchhazydistinctionifindeedtheydidnotviewallEuropeanswithsuspicionanddislike。InBraziltherelationofclasseswasmuchthesame，exceptthatherethenativeelementwasmuchlessconspicuousasasocialfactor。
　　ThesedistinctionswereallthemoreaccentuatedbytheabsencebothofotherEuropeanpeoplesandofadefinitemiddleclassofanyrace。EverywhereintheareastenantedoriginallybySpaniardsandPortuguesetheEuropeanofalienstockwasunwelcome，eventhoughheobtainedagrudgingpermissionfromthehomegovernmentstoremainacolonist。InBrazil，owingtotheclosecommercialconnectionsbetweenGreatBritainandPortugal，foreignerswerenotsorigidlyexcludedasinSpanishAmerica。
　　TheSpaniardwasunwillingthatlandssorichinnaturaltreasuresshouldbethrownopentoexploitationbyothers，evenifthenewcomerprofessedtheCatholicfaith。Thehereticwasdeniedadmissionasamatterofcourse。Hadtheforeignerbeenallowedtoenter，theriskofsuchexploitationdoubtlesswouldhavebeenincreased，butamiddleclassmighthavearisentoweldthethediscordantfactionsintoasocietywhichhadcommondesiresandaspirations。Withthedevelopmentofcommerceandindustry，withthegrowthofactivitieswhichbringmenintotouchwitheachotherineverydayaffairs，somethinglikeasolidarityofsentimentmighthavebeenawakened。Initsabsencetheonlybondamongthedominantwhiteswastheirsenseofsuperioritytothecoloredmassesbeneaththem。
　　ManuallaborandtradehadneverattractedtheSpaniardsandthePortuguese。Thearmy，thechurch，andthelawwerethethreecallingsthatofferedthegreatestopportunityfordistinction。
　　Agriculture，grazing，andminingtheydidnotdisdain，providedthatsuperintendenceandnotactualworkwasthemainrequisite。
　　TheeconomicorganizationwhichtheSpaniardsandPortugueseestablishedinAmericawasnaturallyamoreorlessfaithfulreproductionofthattowhichtheyhadbeenaccustomedathome。
　　Agricultureandgrazingbecamethechiefoccupations。DomesticanimalsandmanykindsofplantsbroughtfromEuropethrovewonderfullyintheirnewhome。Hugeestatesweretherule;smallfarms，theexception。Ontheranchesandplantationsvastdrovesofcattle，sheep，andhorseswereraised，aswellasimmensecrops。Mining，oncesomuchinvogue，hadbecomeanoccupationofsecondaryimportance。
　　Ontheirestatestheplanter，theranchman，andthemineownerlivedlikefeudaloverlords，waiteduponbyIndianandnegropeasantswhoalsotilledthefields，tendedthedroves，anddugtheearthforpreciousmetalsandstones。Originallythenativeshadbeenforcedtoworkunderconditionsapproximatingactualservitude，butgraduallytheharsherfeaturesofthissystemhadgivenwaytoamodeofservicecloselyresemblingpeonage。Paidapitifullysmallwage，providedwithahutofreedsorsundriedmudandatinypatchofsoilonwhichtogrowafewhillsofthecornandbeansthatwerehisusualnourishment，theordinaryIndianorhalf—castelaborerwasscarcelymorethanabeastofburden，acreatureinwhomcivicvirtuesofahighorderwerenotlikelytodevelop。Ifhebetookhimselftothetownhispossibleusefulnesslessenedinproportionashefellintodrunkenordissolutehabits，orlapsedintoastateoflazyandvacuousdreaminess，enlivenedonlybychatterortherollingofacigarette。Ontheotherhand，whenemployedinacapacitywherenativetalentmightbetested，heoftenrevealedapowerofactionwhich，ifproperlyguided，couldbeturnedtoexcellentaccount。Asacowboy，forexample，hebecameacapitalhorseman，brave，alert，skillful，anddaring。
　　CommercewithPortugalandSpainwaslongconfinedtoyearlyfairsandoccasionaltradingfleetsthatpliedbetweenfixedpoints。Butwhenliberaldecreesthrewopennumerousportsinthemothercountriestotrafficandtheseveralcoloniesweregivenalsotheprivilegeofexchangingtheirproductsamongthemselves，thevolumeofexportsandimportsincreasedandgaveanimpetustoactivitywhichbroughtanotablereleasefromthetorporandvegetationcharacterizingearlierdays。Yet，evenso，communicationwasdifficultandirregular。Byseathedistancesweregreatandthevesselsslow。Overlandthenaturalobstaclestotransportationweresonumerousandthemethodsofconveyancesocumbersomeandexpensivethatthepeopleofoneprovincewerepracticallystrangerstotheirneighbors。
　　MattersofthemindandofthesoulwereundertheguardianshipoftheChurch。Morethanmerelyaspiritualmentor，itcontrollededucationanddeterminedinlargemeasurethecourseofintellectuallife。Possessedofvastwealthinlandsandrevenues，itsmonasteriesandpriories，itshospitalsandasylums，itsresidencesofecclesiastics，werethefinestbuildingsineverycommunity，adornedwiththemasterpiecesofsculptorsandpainters。Avillagemightboastofonlyafewsqualidhuts，yetthereinthe"plaza，"orcentralsquare，loomedupamassivelyimposingedificeofworship，itstowerspointingheavenward，thesignandsymboloftriumphantpower。
　　TheChurch，infact，wasthegreatestcivilizingagencythatSpainandPortugalhadattheirdisposal。Itinculcatedareverenceforthemonarchandhisministersandfosteredadeep—rootedsentimentofconservatismwhichmadedisloyaltyandinnovationalmostsacrilegious。IntheSpanishcoloniesinparticulartheChurchnotonlyprotectedthenativesagainsttherapacityofmanyawhitemasterbuttaughtthemtherudimentsoftheChristianfaith，aswellasusefulartsandtrades。Inremoteplaces，secludedsofaraspossiblefromcontactwithEuropeans，missionarypioneersgatheredtogethergroupsofneophyteswhomtheyrendereddocileandindustrious，itistrue，butwhomtheyoftendeprivedofinitiativeandselfrelianceandkeptilliterateandsuperstitious。
　　Educationwasreservedcommonlyformembersoftherulingclass。
　　Asimpartedintheuniversitiesandschools，itsavoredstronglyofmedievalism。Thoughsomeattentionwasdevotedtothenaturalsciences，experimentalmethodswerenotencouragedandfoundnoplaceinlecturesandtextbooks。Books，periodicals，andotherpublicationscameunderecclesiasticalinspection，andavigilantcensorshipdeterminedwhatwasfitforthepublictoread。
　　Supremeoverallthecolonialdomainswasthegovernmentoftheirmajesties，themonarchsofSpainandPortugal。AministryandacouncilmanagedtheaffairsoftheinhabitantsofAmericaandguardedtheirdestiniesinaccordancewiththetheoriesofenlighteneddespotismthenprevailinginEurope。TheSpanishdominionsweredividedintoviceroyaltiesandsubdividedintocaptainciesgeneral，presidencies，andintendancies。Associatedwiththehighofficialswhoruledthemwereaudiencias，orboards，whichwereatoncejudicialandadministrative。Belowtheseindividualsandbodieswereahostoflesserfunctionarieswho，liketheirsuperiors，heldtheirpostsbyappointment。InBrazilthegovernorgeneralborethetitleofviceroyandcarriedontheadministrationassistedbyprovincialcaptains，supremecourts，andlocalofficers。
　　Thiscontrolwasbynomeanssoautocraticasitmightseem。
　　Portugalhadtoomanyinterestselsewhere，andwastoofeeblebesides，tokeeptightreinoveraterritorysovastandapopulationsomuchinclinedastheBraziliantoformitselfintoprovincialunits，jealousofthecentralauthority。Spain，onitspart，hadalwayspractisedthegoodoldRomanruleof"divideandgovern。"Itspolicywastoholdthebalanceamongofficials，civilandecclesiastical，andinhabitants，whiteandcolored。ItknewhowstronglyindividualistictheSpaniardwasandrealizedthefullforceoftheadage，"Iobey，butIdonotfulfill！"
　　LegislaturesandotheragenciesofgovernmentdirectlyrepresentativeofthepeopledidnotexistinSpanishorPortugueseAmerica。TheSpanishcabildo，ortowncouncil，however，affordedanopportunityfortheexpressionofthepopularwillandoftenprovedintractable。Itsmembershipwasappointive，elective，hereditary，andevenpurchasable，buttheformdidnotaffectthesubstance。TheSpanishAmericanshadaninstinctforpolitics。"Hereallmengovern，"declaredoneoftheviceroys;"thepeoplehavemorepartinpoliticaldiscussionsthaninanyotherprovincesintheworld;acouncilofwarsitsineveryhouse。"
　　CHAPTERII。"OUROLDKINGORNONE"
　　ThemovementwhichledeventuallytotheemancipationofthecoloniesdifferedfromthelocaluprisingswhichoccurredinvariouspartsofSouthAmericaduringtheeighteenthcentury。
　　Eitherthearbitraryconductofindividualgovernorsorexcessivetaxationhadcausedtheearlierrevolts。Tothefinalrevolutionforeignnationsandforeignideasgavethenecessaryimpulse。A
　　fewmembersoftheintellectualclasshadreadinsecretthewritingsofFrenchandEnglishphilosophers。OthershadtraveledabroadandcamehometowhispertotheircountrymenwhattheyhadseenandheardinlandsmoreprogressivethanSpainandPortugal。
　　Thecommercialrelations，bothlicitandillicit，whichGreatBritainhadmaintainedwithseveralofthecolonieshadservedtodiffuseamongthemsomenotionsofwhatwentoninthebusyworldoutside。
　　Bygainingitsindependence，theUnitedStateshadsetapracticalexampleofwhatmightbedoneelsewhereinAmerica。
　　TranslatedintoFrench，theDeclarationofIndependencewasreadandcommenteduponbyenthusiastswhodreamedofthepossibilityofapplyingitsprinciplesintheirownlands。MorepowerfulstillweretheideasliberatedbytheFrenchRevolutionandNapoleon。Borneacrosstheocean，thedoctrinesof"Liberty，Fraternity，Equality"stirredtheardent—mindedtothoughtsofaction，thoughtheSpanishandPortugueseAmericanswhoschemedandplottedwerethemeresthandful。Theseedtheyplantedwasslowtogerminateamongpeopleswhohadbeentaughttoregardthingsforeignasoutlandishandheretical。Manyyearsthereforeelapsedbeforetheideasofthefewbecametheconvictionsofthemasses，fortheconservatismandloyaltyofthecommonpeoplewereunbelieveablysteadfast。
　　NotSpanishandPortugueseAmerica，butSantoDomingo，anislandwhichhadbeenunderFrenchrulesince1795andwhichwastenantedchieflybyignorantandbrutalizednegroslaves，wasthesceneofthefirsteffectualassertionofindependenceinthelandsoriginallycolonizedbySpain。Risinginrevoltagainsttheirmasters，thenegroeshadwoncompletecontrolundertheirremarkablecommander，ToussaintL’Ouverture，whenNapoleonBonaparte，thenFirstConsul，decidedtorestoretheoldregime。
　　Butthehugeexpeditionwhichwassenttoreducetheislandendedinabsolutefailure。Afteraruthlessracialwarfare，characterizedbyferocityonbothsides，theFrenchretired。In1804thenegroleadersproclaimedtheindependenceoftheislandasthe"RepublicofHaiti，"underaPresidentwho，appreciativeoftheexamplejustsetbyNapoleon，informedhisfollowersthathetoohadassumedtheaugusttitleof"Emperor"！HisimmediatesuccessorinAfricanroyaltywasthenotoriousHenriChristophe，whogatheredabouthimanobilitygarishincolorandtaste——
　　includingtheirsablelordships，the"DukeofMarmalade"andthe"CountofLemonade";andwhobuiltthepalaceof"SansSouci"andthecountryseatsof"Queen’sDelight"and"King’sBeautifulView，"aboutwhichclustertalesofbarbaricpleasurethatrivalthegrimlegendsclingingtotheparapetsandenshroudingthedungeonsofhismountainfortressof"LaFerriere。"Noneoftheseblackormulattopotentates，however，couldexpelFrenchauthorityfromtheeasternpartofSantoDomingo。Thattaskwastakeninhandbytheinhabitantsthemselves，andin1809theysucceededinrestoringthecontrolofSpain。MeanwhileeventswhichhadbeenoccurringinSouthAmericapreparedthewayforthemovementthatwasultimatelytobanishtheflagsofbothSpainandPortugalfromthecontinentsoftheNewWorld。AstheonecountryhadfallenmoreorlesstindertheinfluenceofFrance，sotheotherhadbecomepracticallydependentuponGreatBritain。InterestedintheexpansionofitscommerceandviewingtheoutlyingpossessionsofpeopleswhosubmittedtoFrenchguidanceaslegitimateobjectsforseizure，GreatBritainin1797
　　wrestedTrinidadfromthefeeblegripofSpainandthusacquiredastrategicpositionverynearSouthAmericaitself。Haiti，Trinidad，andJamaica，infact，allbecameCentersofrevolutionaryagitationandhavensofrefugefor。SpanishAmericanradicalsinthetroublousyearstofollow。
　　ForemostamongtheearlyconspiratorswastheVenezuelan，FranciscodeMiranda，knowntohisfellowAmericansofSpanishstockasthe"Precursor。"Napoleononceremarkedofhim："HeisaDonQuixote，withthisdifference——heisnotcrazy……Themanhassacredfireinhissoul。"AnofficerinthearmiesofSpainandofrevolutionaryFranceandlateraresidentofLondon，Mirandadevotedthirtyyearsofhisadventurouslifetothecauseofindependenceforhiscountrymen。WithofficialsoftheBritishGovernmenthelaboredlongandzealously，elicitingfromthemvaguepromisesofarmedsupportandsomefinancialaid。ItwasinLondon，also，thatheorganizedagroupofsympathizersintothesecretsocietycalledthe"GrandLodgeofAmerica。"Withit，orwithitsbranchesinFranceandSpain，manyoftheleadersofthesubsequentrevolutioncametobeidentified。
　　In1806，availinghimselfofthenegligenceoftheUnitedStatesandhavingtheconnivanceoftheBritishauthoritiesinTrinidad，MirandaheadedtwoexpeditionstothecoastofVenezuela。Hehadhopedthathisappearancewouldbethesignalforageneraluprising;instead，hewastreatedwithindifference。HiscountrymenseemedtoregardhimasatoolofGreatBritain，andnoonefeltdisposedtoaccepttheblessingsoflibertyunderthatguise。Humiliated，butnotdespairing，MirandareturnedtoLondontoawaitahappierday。
　　TwoBritishexpeditionswhichattemptedtoconquertheregionabouttheRiodelaPlatain1806and1807werealsofrustratedbythissamestubbornloyalty。WhentheSpanishviceroyfled，theinhabitantsthemselvesralliedtothedefenseofthecountryanddroveouttheinvaders。ThereuponthepeopleofBuenosAires，assembledincabildoabierto，ortownmeeting，deposedtheviceroyandchosetheirvictoriousleaderinhissteaduntilasuccessorcouldberegularlyappointed。
　　Then，in1808，felltheblowwhichwastoshatterthebondsunitingSpaintoitscontinentaldominionsinAmerica。ThediscordandcorruptionwhichprevailedinthatunfortunatecountryaffordedNapoleonanopportunitytooustitsfeeblekingandhisincompetentson，Ferdinand，andtoplaceJosephBonaparteonthethrone。ButthemasterofEuropeunderestimatedthefightingabilityofSpaniards。Insteadofhumblycomplyingwithhismandate，theyroseinarmsagainsttheusurperandcreatedacentraljunta，orrevolutionarycommittee，togoverninthenameofFerdinandVII，astheirrightfulruler。
　　ThenewsofthisFrenchaggressionarousedinthecoloniesaspiritofresistanceasvehementasthatinthemothercountry。
　　BothSpaniardsandCreolesrepudiatedthe"intruderking。"
　　Believing，asdidtheircomradesoversea，thatFerdinandwasahelplessvictiminthehandsofNapoleon，theyrecognizedtherevolutionarygovernmentandsentgreatsumsofmoneytoSpaintoaidinthestruggleagainsttheFrench。EnvoysfromJosephBonaparteseekinganacknowledgmentofhisrulewereangrilyrejectedandwereforcedtoleave。
　　Thesituationonbothsidesoftheoceanwasnowanextraordinaryone。JustasthejuntainSpainhadnolegalrighttogovern，sotheofficialsinthecolonies，holdingtheirpostsbyappointmentfromadeposedking，hadnolegalauthority，andthepeoplewouldnotallowthemtoacceptnewcommissionsfromausurper。TheChurch，too，detestingNapoleonastheheirofarevolutionthathadunderminedtheCatholicfaithandregardinghimasagodlessdespotwhohadmadethePopeacaptive，refusedtorecognizetheFrenchpretender。UntilFerdinandVIIcouldberestoredtohisthrone，therefore，thecolonistshadtochoosewhethertheywouldcarryontheadministrationundertheguidanceoftheself—constitutedauthoritiesinSpain，orshouldthemselvescreatesimilarorganizationsineachofthecoloniestotakechargeofaffairs。Theformercoursewasfavoredbytheofficialelementanditssupportersamongtheconservativeclasses，thelatterbytheliberals，whofeltthattheyhadasmuchrightasthepeopleofthemothercountrytochoosetheformofgovernmentbestsuitedtotheirinterests。
　　Eachpartyviewedtheotherwithdistrust。Oppositiontothemoredemocraticprocedure，itwasfelt，couldmeannothinglessthansecretsubmissiontothepretensionsofJosephBonaparte;whereastheestablishmentinAmericaofanyorganizationslikethoseinSpainsurelyindicatedaspiritofdisloyaltytowardFerdinandVIIhimself。Undercircumstanceslikethese，whenthejuntaanditssuccessor，thecouncilofregency，refusedtomakesubstantialconcessionstothecolonies，bothpartieswereinevitablydriftingtowardindependence。InthephraseofManuelBelgrano，oneofthegreatleadersintheviceroyaltyofLaPlata，"ouroldKingornone"becamethewatchwordthatgraduallyshapedthethoughtsofSpanishAmericans。
　　When，therefore，in1810，thenewscamethattheFrencharmyhadoverrunSpain，democraticideassolongcherishedinsecretandpropagatedsoindustriouslybyMirandaandhisfollowersatlastfoundexpressioninaseriesofuprisingsinthefourviceroyaltiesofLaPlata，Peru，NewGranada，andNewSpain。Butineachoftheseviceroyaltiestherevolutionranadifferentcourse。Sometimesitwasthecapitalcitythatledoff;sometimesaprovincialtown;sometimesagroupofindividualsinthecountrydistricts。Amongtheactualparticipantsinthevariousmovementsverylittleharmonywastobefound。Hereaparticularleaderclaimedobedience;thereaboardofself—chosenmagistratesheldsway;elsewhereatownorprovincerefusedtoacknowledgethecentralauthority。Toaddtothesecomplications，in1812，arevolutionaryCortes，orlegislativebody，assembledatCadiz，adoptedforSpainanditsdominionsaconstitutionprovidingfordirectrepresentationofthecoloniesinoverseaadministration。SincearrangementsofthissortcontentedmanyoftheSpanishAmericanswhohadprotestedagainstexistingabuses，theywerequiteunwillingtopresstheirgrievancesfurther。
　　Givenalltheseevidencesofdivisioninactivityandcounsel，onedoesnotfinditdifficulttoforeseetheoutcome。
　　OnMay25，1810，popularagitationatBuenosAiresforcedtheSpanishviceroyofLaPlatatoresign。ThecentralauthoritywasthereuponvestedinanelectedjuntathatwastogoverninthenameofFerdinandVII。Oppositionbrokeoutimmediately。Thenorthernandeasternpartsoftheviceroyaltyshowedthemselvesquiteunwillingtoobeytheseupstarts。Meantime，urgedonbyradicalswhorevivedtheJacobindoctrinesofrevolutionaryFrance，thejuntastrovetosuppressinrigorousfashionanysymptomsofdisaffection;butitcoulddonothingtostemthetideofseparationintherestoftheviceroyalty——inCharcas（Bolivia），Paraguay，andtheBandaOriental，orEastBank，oftheUruguay。
　　AtBuenosAiresacutedifferenceofopinion——abouttheextenttowhichthemovementshouldbecarriedandaboutthepermanentformofgovernmenttobeadoptedaswellasthemethodofestablishingit——producedaseriesofpoliticalcommotionslittleshortofanarchy。Triumviratesfollowedthejuntaintopower;supremedirectorsalternatedwithtriumvirates;andconstituentasmbliescameandwent。Underoneauthorityoranotherthenameoftheviceroyaltywaschangedto"UnitedProvincesofLaPlataRiver";
　　aseal，aflag，andacoatofarmswerechosen;andnumerousfeaturesoftheSpanishregimewereabolished，includingtitlesofnobility，theInquisition，theslavetrade，andrestrictionsonthepress。Butsochaoticweretheconditionswithinandsodisastrousthecampaignswithout，thateventuallycommissionersweresenttoEurope，bearinginstructionstoseekakingforthedistractedcountry。
　　WhenCharcasfellunderthecontroloftheviceroyofPeru，Paraguaysetuparegimeforitself。AtAsuncion，thecapital，arevolutionaryoutbreakin1811replacedtheSpanishintendantbyatriumvirate，ofwhichthemostprominentmemberwasDr。JoseGasparRodriguezdeFrancia。Alawyerbyprofession，familiarwiththehistoryofRome，anadmirerofFranceandNapoleon，amisanthropeandarecluse，possessingablindfaithinhimselfandactuatedbyasenseofimplacablehatredforallwhomightventuretothwarthiswill，thisextraordinarypersonagespeedilymadehimselfmasterofthecountry。ApopulationcomposedchieflyofIndians，docileintemperamentandsubmissiveformanyyearstothepaternalruleofJesuitmissionaries，couldnotfailtobecomepliantinstrumentsinhishands。Athisdirection，therefore，ParaguaydeclareditselfindependentofbothSpainandLaPlata。Thisdone，anobedientCongresselectedFranciaconsuloftherepublicandlaterinvestedhimwiththetitleofdictator。IntheBandaOrientaltwodistinctmovementsappeared。
　　Montevideo，thecapital，longacenterofroyalistsympathiesandforsomeyearshostiletotherevolutionarygovernmentinBuenosAires，wasreunitedwithLaPlatain1814。ElsewherethepeopleoftheprovincefollowedthefortunesofJoseGervasioArtigas，anableandvaliantcavalryofficer，whoroamedthroughitatwill，biddingdefiancetoanyauthoritynothisown。MostoftheformerviceroyaltyofLaPlatahadthus，toallintentsandpurposes，thrownofftheyokeofSpain。
　　Chilewastheonlyotherprovincethatforawhilegavepromiseofsimilaraction。Hereagainitwasthecapitalcitythattookthelead。OnreceiptofthenewsoftheoccurrencesatBuenosAiresinMay，1810，thepeopleofSantiagoforcedthecaptaingeneraltoresignand，onthe18thofSeptember，replacedhimbyajuntaoftheirownchoosing。Butneitherthisbody，noritssuccessors，noreventheCongressthatassembledthefollowingyear，couldestablishapermanentandeffectivegovernment。
　　NowhereinSpanishAmerica，perhaps，didthelowerclassescountforsolittle，andtheupperclassforsomuch，asinChile。
　　Thoughthegreatlandholdersweredisposedtofavorareasonableamountoflocalautonomyforthecountry，theyrefusedtoheedthedemandsoftheradicalsforcompleteindependenceandtheestablishwentofarepublic。Accordingly，inproportionastheiropponentsresortedtomeasuresofcompulsion，thegentrygraduallywithdrewtheirsupportandofferedlittleresistancewhentroopsdispatchedbytheviceroyofPerurestoredtheSpanishregimein1814。TheirreconcilableamongthepatriotsfledovertheAndestothewesternpartofLaPlata，wheretheyfoundhospitablerefuge。
　　ButofalltheSpanishdominionsinSouthAmericanonewitnessedsodesperateastruggleforemancipationastheviceroyaltyofNewGranada。Learningofthecatastrophethathadbefallenthemothercountry，theleadingcitizensofCaracas，actinginconjunctionwiththecabildo，deposedthecaptaingeneralonApril19，1810，andcreatedajuntainhisstead。Theexamplewasquicklyfollowedbymostofthesmallerdivisionsoftheprovince。ThenwhenMirandareturnedfromEnglandtoheadtherevolutionarymovement，aCongress，onJuly5，1811，declaredVenezuelaindependentofSpain。Carriedaway，also，bytheenthusiasmofthemoment，andforgetfuloftheutterunpreparednessofthecountry，theCongresspromulgatedafederalconstitutionmodeledonthatoftheUnitedStates，whichsetforthalltheapproveddoctrinesoftherightsofman。
　　NeitherMirandanorhisyouthfulcoadjutor，SimonBolivar，soontobecomefamousintheannalsofSpanishAmericanhistory，approvedofthisplungeintodemocracy。Ardentastheirpatriotismwas，theyknewthatthecountryneededcentralizedcontrolandnotexperimentsinconfederationortheoreticalliberty。Theyspeedilyfoundout，also，thattheycouldnotcountonthesupportofthepeopleatlarge。Then，almostasifNatureherselfdisapprovedofthewholeproceeding，afrightfulearthquakeinthefollowingyearshookmanyaVenezuelantownintoruins。Everywheretheroyaliststookheart。DissensionsbrokeoutbetweenMirandaandhissubordinates。Betrayedintothehandsofhisenemies，theoldwarriorhimselfwassentawaytodieinaSpanishdungeon。Andsothe"earthquake"republiccollapsed。
　　ButtherigorousmeasuresadoptedbytheroyaliststosustaintheirtriumphenabledBolivartorenewthestrugglein1813。Heentereduponacampaignwhichwassignalizedbyactsofbarbarityonbothsides。Hisdeclarationof"wartothedeath"wasansweredinkind。Wholesaleslaughterofprisoners，indiscriminatepillage，andwantondestructionofpropertyspreadterroranddesolationthroughoutthecountry。Acclaimed"LiberatorofVenezuela"andmadedictatorbythepeopleofCaracas，Bolivarstroveinvaintoovercomethehalf—savagellaneros，orcowboysoftheplains，whodespisedtheinnovatingaristocratsofthecapital。Thoughhewonafewvictories，hedidnotmakethecauseofindependencepopular，and，realizinghisfailure，heretiredintoNewGranada。
　　Inthisregionanastoundingseriesofrevolutionsandcounter—revolutionshadtakenplace。Unmindfulofpleasforcooperation，theCreoleleadersintownanddistrict，from1810
　　onward，seizedcontrolofaffairsinafashionthatbetokenedaspeedydisintegrationofthecountry。ThoughtheviceroywasdeposedandageneralCongresswassummonedtomeetatthecapital，Bogota，effortsatcentralizationencounteredoppositionineveryquarter。Onlytheroyalistsmanagedtopreserveasemblanceofunity。Separaterepublicssprangintobeingandin1813declaredtheirindependenceofSpain。Presidentsandcongresseswerepittedagainstoneanother。Townsfoughtamongthemselves。Evenparishesdemandedlocalautonomy。ForawhiletheservicesofBolivarwereinvokedtoforcerebelliousareasintoobediencetotheprincipleofconfederation，butwithscantresult。Unabletoagreewithhisfellowofficersanddisplayingtraitsofmoralweaknesswhichatthistimeasonpreviousoccasionsshowedthathehadnotyetrisentoafullsenseofresponsibility，theLiberatorrenouncedthetaskandfledtoJamaica。
　　ThescenenowshiftsnorthwardtotheviceroyaltyofNewSpain。
　　Unlikethestrugglesalreadydescribed，theuprisingsthatbeganin1810incentralMexicoweresubstantiallyrevoltsofIndiansandhalf—castesagainstwhitedomination。Onthe16thofSeptember，acrowdofnativesroseundertheleadershipofMiguelHidalgo，aparishpriestofthevillageofDolores。Bearingontheirbannerstheslogan，"LongliveFerdinandVIIanddownwithbadgovernment，"theundisciplinedcrowd，soontonumbertensofthousands，arousedsuchterrorbytheirbehaviorthatthewhiteswerecompelledtouniteinself—defense。ItmatterednotwhetherHidalgohopedtoestablisharepublicorsimplytosecureforhisfollowersrelieffromoppression：ineithercasethewhitescouldexpectonlyIndiandomination。Beforethetrainedforcesofthewhitesahordeofnatives，soignorantofmodernwarfarethatsomeofthemtriedtostopcannonballsbyclappingtheirstrawhatsoverthemouthsoftheguns，couldnotstandtheirground。
　　Hidalgowascapturedandshot，buthewassucceededbyJoseMariaMorelos，alsoapriest。RevivingtheoldAztecnameforcentralMexico，hesummoneda"CongressofAnahuac，"whichin1813
　　assertedthatdependenceonthethroneofSpainwas"foreverbrokenanddissolved。"AblerandmorehumanethanHidalgo，hesetuparevolutionarygovernmentthattheauthoritiesofMexicofailedforawhiletosuppress。
　　In1814，therefore，Spainstillheldthebulkofitsdominions。
　　Trinidad，tobesure，hadbeenlosttoGreatBritain，andbothLouisianaandWestFloridatotheUnitedStates。Royalistcontrol，furthermore，hadceasedinpartsoftheviceroyaltiesofLaPlataandNewGranada。ToregainTrinidadandLouisianawashopeless：butawisepolicyconciliationoranoverwhemingdisplayofarmedforcemightyetrestoreSpanishrulewhereithadbeenmerelysuspended。
　　VerydifferentwasthecourseofeventsinBrazil。Strangelyenough，thefirstimpulsetowardindependencewasgivenbythePortugueseroyalfamily。TerrifiedbytheprospectiveinvasionofthecountrybyaFrencharmy，latein1807thePrinceRegent，theroyalfamily，andahostofPortuguesenoblesandcommonerstookpassageonBritishvesselsandsailedtoRiodeJaneiro。Brazilthereuponbecametheseatofroyalgovernmentandimmediatelyassumedanimportancewhichitcouldneverhaveattainedasameredependency。ActingundertheadviceoftheBritishminister，thePrinceRegentthrewopentheportsofthecolonytotheshipsofallnationsfriendlytoPortugal，gavehissanctiontoavarietyofreformsbeneficialtocommerceandindustry，andevenpermittedaprintingpresstobesetup，thoughonlyforofficialpurposes。FromallthesebenevolentactivitiesBrazilderivedgreatadvantages。Ontheotherhand，thePrinceRegent’saversiontopopulareducationoranythingthatmightsavorofdemocracyandthegreedofhisfollowersforplaceanddistinctionalienatedhiscolonialsubjects。TheycouldnotfailtocontrastautocracyinBrazilwiththeliberalideasthathadmadeheadwayelsewhereinSpanishAmerica。AsaconsequenceaspiritofunrestarosewhichbodedillforthemaintenanceofPortugueserule。
　　CHAPTERIII"INDEPNDENCEORDEATH"
　　TherestorationofFerdinandVIItohisthronein1814encouragedtheliberalsofSpain，nolessthantheloyalistsofSpanishAmerica，tohopethatthe"oldKing"wouldnowgrantanewdispensation。Freedomofcommerceandafairmeasureofpopularrepresentationingovernment，itwasbelieved，wouldcompensateboththemothercountryforthesufferingwhichithadundergoneduringthePeninsularWarandthecoloniesforthetrialstowhichloyaltyhadbeensubjected。ButFerdinandVIIwasatypicalBourbon。Nothinglessthananabsolutereestablishmentoftheearlierregimewouldsatisfyhim。OnbothsidesoftheAtlantic，therefore，theliberalswereforcedintooppositiontothecrown，althoughtheyweresofarapartthattheycouldnotcooperatewitheachother。IndependencewastobethefortuneoftheSpanishAmericans，andacontinuanceofdespotism，forawhile，thelotoftheSpaniards。
　　AstheregionoftheviceroyaltyofLaPlatahadbeenthefirsttocastofftheauthorityofthehomegovernment，soitwasthefirsttocompleteitsseparationfromSpain。Despitethefactthatdisorderwasrampanteverywhereandthatmostofthelocaldistrictscouldnotorwouldnotsenddeputies，acongressthatassembledatTucumanvotedonJuly9，1816，todeclarethe"UnitedProvincesinSouthAmerica"independent。Comprehensivethoughtheexpressionwas，itappliedonlytothecentralpartoftheformerviceroyalty，andeventhereitwaslittlemorethananaspiration。MistrustoftheauthoritiesatBuenosAires，insistenceuponprovincialautonomy，failuretoagreeuponaparticularkindofrepublicangovernment，andalingeringinclinationtomonarchymadeprogresstowardnationalunityimpossible。In1819，tobesure，aconstitutionwasadopted，providingforacentralizedgovernment，butinthecountryatlargeitencounteredtoomuchresistancefromthosewhofavoredafederalgovernmenttobecomeeffective。
　　IntheBandaOriental，overmostofwhichArtigasandhishorsemenheldsway，chaoticconditionsinvitedaggressionfromthedirectionofBrazil。ThisEastBankoftheUruguayhadlongbeendisputedterritorybetweenSpainandPortugal;andnowitsdefiniteacquisitionbythelatterseemedaneasyundertaking。
　　Instead，however，thetaskturnedouttobeatrulyformidableone。Montevideo，feeblydefendedbytheforcesoftheGovernmentatBuenosAires，sooncapitulated，butfouryearselapsedbeforetherestofthecountrycouldbesubdued。ArtigasfledtoParaguay，wherehefellintotheclutchesofFrancia，nevertoescape。In1821theBandaOrientalwasannexedtoBrazilastheCisplatineProvince。
　　OverParaguaythatgrimandsomberpotentate，knownas"TheSupremeOne"——ElSupremo——presidedwithironhand。In1817
　　FranciasetupadespotismuniqueintheannalsofSouthAmerica。
　　Fearfullestcontactwiththeouterworldmightweakenhistenaciousgripuponhissubjects，whomheterrorizedintoobedience，hebarredapproachtothecountryandsufferednoonetoleaveit。Heorganizedanddrilledanarmyobedienttohiswill……Whenhewentforthbyday，attendedbyanescortofcavalry，thedoorsandwindowsofhouseshadtobekeptclosedandnoonewasallowedonthestreets。Nighthespenttillalatehourinreadingandstudy，changinghisbedroomfrequentlytoavoidassassination。Religiousfunctionsthatmightdisturbthepublicpeaceheforbade。CompellingthebishopofAsunciontoresignonaccountofseniledebility，Franciahimselfassumedtheepiscopaloffice。Evenintermarriageamongtheoldcolonialfamiliesheprohibited，soastoreducealltoacommonsociallevel。Heattainedhisobject。Paraguaybecameaquietstate，whatevermightbesaidofitsneighbors！
　　ElsewhereinsouthernSpanishAmericaabrilliantfeatofarmsbroughttotheforeitsmostdistinguishedsoldier。ThiswasJosedeSanMartinofLaPlata。LikeMiranda，hehadbeenanofficerintheSpanisharmyandhadreturnedtohisnativelandanardentapostleofindependence。Quicktorealizethefactthat，solongasChileremainedunderroyalistcontrol，thepossibilityofanattackfromthatquarterwasaconstantmenacetothesafetyofthenewlyconstitutedrepublic，heconceivedtheboldplanoforganizingnearthewesternfrontieranarmy——composedpartlyofChileanrefugeesandpartlyofhisowncountrymen——withwhichheproposedtocrosstheAndesandmeettheenemyonhisownground。
　　AmongthesefugitiveswastheableandvaliantBernardoO’Higgins，sonofanIrishofficerwhohadbeenviceroyofPeru。
　　CooperatingwithO’Higgins，SanMartinfixedhisheadquartersatMendozaandbegantogatherandtrainthefourthousandmenwhomhejudgedneedfulfortheenterprise。
　　ByJanuary，1817，the"ArmyoftheAndes"wasready。Tocrossthemountainsmeanttotransportmen，horses，artillery，andstorestoanaltitudeofthirteenthousandfeet，wheretheUspallataPassaffordedanoutlettoChileansoil。ThispasswasnearlyamilehigherthantheGreatSt。BernardintheAlps，thecrossingofwhichgaveNapoleonBonapartesuchrenown。Onthe12thofFebruarythehostsofSanMartinhurledthemselvesupontheroyalistsentrenchedontheslopesofChacabucoandroutedthemutterly。ThebattleproveddecisivenotofthefortunesofChilealonebutofthoseofallSpanishSouthAmerica。AsaviceroyofPerulaterconfessed，"itmarkedthemomentwhenthecauseofSpainintheIndiesbegantorecede。"
　　NamedsupremedirectorbythepeopleofSantiago，O’Higginsfoughtvigorouslythoughineffectuallytodriveouttheroyalistswho，reinforcedfromPeru，heldtheregionsouthofthecapital。
　　Thathefaileddidnotdeterhimfromhavingavotetakenundermilitaryauspices，onthestrengthofwhich，onFebruary12，1818，hedeclaredChileanindependentnation，thedateoftheproclamationbeingchangedtothe1stofJanuary，soastomaketheinaugurationoftheneweracoincidentwiththeentryofthenewyear。SanMartin，meanwhile，hadbeencollectingreinforcementswithwhichtostrikethefinalblow。Onthe5thofApril，theBattleofMaipogavehimthevictoryhedesired。
　　Exceptforafewisolatedpointstothesouthward，thepowerofSpainhadfallen。
　　UntilthefallofNapoleonin1815ithadbeenthenativeloyalistswhohadsupportedthecauseofthemothercountryintheSpanishdominions。Henceforth，freefromthemenaceoftheEuropeandictator，SpaincouldlooktoheraffairsinAmerica，andduringthenextthreeyearsdispatchedtwenty—fivethousandmentobringtheeoloniestoobedience。ThesesoldiersbegantheirtaskinthenorthernpartofSouthAmerica，andtheretheyendedit——infailure。Tothisfailurethedefectionofnativeroyalistscontributed，fortheywerealienatednotsomuchbythepresenceoftheSpanishtroopsasbytheoftenmercilessseveritythatmarkedtheirconduct。Theatrocitiesmayhavebeenprovokedbythebehavioroftheiropponents;but，bethisasitmay，thepatriotsgainedrecruitsaftereachvictory。
　　ASpanisharmyofmorethantenthousand，underthecommandofPabloMorillo，arrivedinVenezuelainApril，1815。Hefoundtheprovincerelativelytranquilandevendisposedtowelcomethefullrestorationofroyalgovernment。Leavingagarrisonsufficientforthepurposeofmilitaryoccupation，MorillosailedforCartagena，thekeytoNewGranada。Besiegedbylandandsea，theinhabitantsofthetownmaintainedforupwardsofthreemonthsaresistancewhich，initsheroism，privation，andsacrifice，recalledthememorabledefenseofSaragossainthemothercountryagainsttheFrenchsevenyearsbefore。WithCartagenataken，regularsandloyalistsunitedtostampouttherebellionelsewhere。AtBogoth，inparticular，thenewSpanishviceroyinstalledbyMorillowagedasavagewaronallsuspectedofaidingthepatriotcause。Hedidnotspareevenwomen，andoneofhisvictimswasayoungheroine，PolicarpaSalavarrietabyname。Thoughforherexecutionthreethousandsoldiersweredetailed，thegirlwasunterrifiedbyherdoomandwasearnestlybeseechingtheloyalistsamongthemtoturntheirarmsagainsttheenemiesoftheircountrywhenavolleystretchedherlifelessontheground。
　　MeanwhileBolivarhadbeenfittingout，inHaitiandintheDutchislandofCuracao，anexpeditiontotakeupanewtheworkoffreeingVenezuela。HardlyhadtheLiberatorlandedinMay，1816，whendissensionswithhisfellowofficersfrustratedanyprospectofsuccess。IndeedtheyobligedhimtoseekrefugeoncemoreinHaiti。Eventually，however，mostofthepatriotleadersbecameconvincedthat，iftheyweretoentertainahopeofsuccess，theymustentrusttheirfortunestoBolivarassupremecommander。
　　Theirchancesofsuccesswereincreasedfurthermorebythesupportofthellaneroswhohadbeenwonovertothecauseofindependence。Undertheirredoubtablechieftain，JoseAntonioPaez，thesefierceandruthlesshorsemenperformedmanyafeatofvalorinthecampaignswhichfollowed。
　　OnceagainonVenezuelansoil，Bolivardeterminedtotransferhisoperationstotheeasternpartofthecountry，whichseemedtoofferbetterstrategicadvantagesthantheregionaboutCaracas。
　　Butevenherethejealousyofhisofficers，theinsubordinationofthefreelances，thestubbornresistanceoftheloyalists——
　　upheldbythewealthyandconservativeclassesandtheablegeneralshipofMorillo，whohadreturnedfromNewGranada——madethesituationoftheLiberatorallthrough1817and1818
　　extremelyprecarious。Happilyforhisfadingfortunes，hishandswerestrengthenedfromabroad。TheUnitedStateshadrecognizedthebelligerencyofseveraloftherevolutionarygovernmentsinSouthAmericaandhadsentdiplomaticagentstothem。GreatBritainhadblockedeveryattemptofFerdinandVIItoobtainhelpfromtheHolyAllianceinreconqueringhisdominions。AndFerdinandhadcontributedtohisownundoingbyfailingtoheedtheurgentrequestsofMorilloforreinforcementstofillhisdwindlingranks。MoredecisivestillweretheservicesofsomefivethousandBritish，Irish，French，andGermanvolunteers，whowereoftenthemainstayofBolivarandhislieutenantsduringthelaterphasesofthestruggle，bothinVenezuelaandelsewhere。
　　ForsometimetheLiberatorhadbeenevolvingaplanofattackupontheroyalistsinNewGranada，similartotheoffensivecampaignwhichSanMartinhadconductedinChile。Morethanthat，hehadconceivedtheidea，onceindependencehadbeenattained，ofunitingthewesternpartoftheviceroyaltywithVenezuelaintoasinglerepublic。ThelatterplanhelaiddownbeforeaCongresswhichassembledatAngosturainFebruary，1819，andwhichpromptlychosehimPresidentoftherepublicandvestedhimwiththepowersofdictator。InJune，attheheadof2100men，hestartedonhisperilousjourneyovertheAndes。
　　UpthroughthepassesandacrossbleakplateausthelittlearmystruggledtillitreachedthebanksoftherivuletofBoyaca，intheveryheartofNewGranada。Here，onthe7thofAugust，BolivarinflictedontheroyalistforcesatremendousdefeatthatgavethedeathblowtothedominationofSpaininnorthernSouthAmerica。OnhistriumphalreturntoAngostura，theCongresssignalizedthevictorybydeclaringthewholeoftheviceroyaltyanindependentstateunderthenameofthe"RepublicofColombia"
　　andchosetheLiberatorasitsprovisionalPresident。Twoyearslater，afundamentallawithadadoptedwasratifiedwithcertainchangesbyanotherCongressassembledatRosariodeCucuta，andBolivarwasmadepermanentPresident。
　　SouthwardofColombialaytheviceroyaltyofPeru，theoldest，richest，andmostconservativeofthelargerSpanishdominionsonthecontinent。Intact，exceptforthelossofChile，ithadfoundterritorialcompensationbystretchingitspowerovertheprovincesofQuitoandCharcas，theonewrenchedofffromtheformerNewGranada，theothertornawayfromwhathadbeenLaPlata。Predominantlyroyalistinsentiment，itwaslikeahugewedgethrustinbetweenthetwoindependentareas。Bythuscuttingoffthepatriotsofthenorthfromtheircomradesinthesouth，itthreatenedbothwithdestructionoftheirliberty。
　　Againfortuneintervenedfromabroad，thistimedirectlyfromSpainitself。FerdinandVII，whohadgatheredanarmyoftwentythousandmenatCadiz，wasreadytodeliveracrushingblowatthecolonieswheninJanuary，1890，amutinyamongthetroopsandrevolutionthroughoutthecountryentirelyfrustratedtheplan。
　　ButalthoughthatreactionarymonarchwascompelledtoaccepttheConstitutionof1819，theSpanishliberalswereunwillingtoconcedetotheirfellowsinAmericaanythingmoresubstantialthanrepresentationintheCortes。Independencetheywouldnottolerate。Ontheotherhand，theexampleofthemothercountryinarmsagainstitsKinginthenameoflibertycouldnotfailtogivehearttothecauseofliberationintheprovincesoverseaandtohastenitsachievement。
　　ThefirstimportanteffortstoprofitbythissituationweremadebythepatriotsinChile。BothSanMartinandO’HigginshadperceivedthattheonlyeffectivewaytoeliminatethePeruvianwedgewastogaincontrolofitsapproachesbysea。TheChileanshadalreadywonsomesuccessinthisdirectionwhenthefieryandimperiousScotchsailor，ThomasCochrane，EarlofDundonald，appearedonthesceneandofferedtoorganizeanavy。Atlengthasquadronwasputunderhiscommand。WithupwardsoffourthousandtroopsinchargeofSanMartintheexpeditionsetsailforPerulateinAugust，1820。
　　WhileCochranebusiedhimselfindestroyingtheSpanishblockade，hiscomradeinarmsmarcheduptotheverygatesofLima，thecapital，andeverywherearousedenthusiasmforemancipation。Whennegotiations，whichhadbeenbegunbytheviceroyandcontinuedbyaspecialcommissionerfromSpain，failedtoswervethepatriotleaderfromhisdemandforarecognitionofindependence，theroyalistsdecidedtoevacuatethetownandtowithdrawintothemountainousregionoftheinterior。SanMartin，thereupon，enteredthecapitalattheheadofhisarmyofliberationandsummonedtheinhabitantstoatownmeetingatwhichtheymightdetermineforthemselveswhatactionshouldbetaken。Theresultwaseasilyforeseen。OnJuly28，1821，Peruwasdeclaredindependent，andafewdayslaterSanMartinwasinvestedwithsupremecommandunderthetitleof"Protector。"
　　ButthetriumphofthenewProtectordidnotlastlong。Forsomereasonhefailedtounderstandthatthewithdrawaloftheroyalistsfromtheneighborhoodofthecoastwasmerelyastrategicretreatthatmadetheoccupationofthecapitalamoreorlessemptyperformance。Thisblunderandavarietyofothermishapsproveddestinedtoblighthismilitarycareer。
　　Unfortunateinthechoiceofhissubordinatesandunabletoretaintheirconfidence;accusedofirresolutionandevenofcowardice;abandonedbyCochrane，whosailedofftoChileandleftthearmystranded;incapableofrestraininghissoldiersfromindulgenceinthepleasuresofLima;nowsevere，nowlaxinanadministrationthatalienatedthesympathiesoftheinfluentialclass，SanMartinwasindeedanunhappyfigure。ItsoonbecameclearthathemustabandonallhopeofeverconqueringthecitadelofSpanishpowerinSouthAmericaunlesshecouldprevailuponBolivartohelphim。
　　Ajunctionoftheforcesofthetwogreatleaderswasperfectlyfeasible，afterthelastimportantfootholdoftheSpaniardsonthecoastofVenezuelahadbeenbrokenbytheBattleofCarabobo，onJuly24，1821。Whethersuchaunionwouldbemade，however，dependedupontwothings：theultimatedispositionoftheprovinceofQuito，lyingbetweenColombiaandPeru，andtheattitudewhichBolivarandSanMartinthemselvesshouldassumetowardeachother。ArevolutionofthepreviousyearattheseaporttownofGuayaquilinthatprovincehadinstalledanindependentgovernmentwhichbesoughttheLiberatortosustainitsexistence。PrompttoavailhimselfofsoauspiciousanopportunityofunitingthisformerdivisionoftheviceroyaltyofNewGranadatohisrepublicofColombia，BolivarappointedAntonioJosedeSucre，hisablestlieutenantandprobablythemostefficientofallSpanishAmericansoldiersofthetime，toassumechargeofthecampaign。OnhisarrivalatGuayaquil，thisofficerfoundtheinhabitantsatoddsamongthemselves。Some，hearkeningtothepleasofanagentofSanMartin，favoredunionwithPeru;others，yieldingtotheargumentsofarepresentativeofBolivar，urgedannexationtoColombia;stillothersregardedabsoluteindependenceasmostdesirable。UnderthesecircumstancesSucreforawhilemadelittleheadwayagainsttheroyalistsconcentratedinthemountainouspartsofthecountrydespitethepartialsupporthereceivedfromtroopswhichweresentbythesoutherncommander。Atlength，onMay24，1822，scalingtheflanksofthevolcanoofPichincha，nearthecapitaltownofQuitoitself，hedeliveredtheblowforfreedom。HereBolivar，whohadfoughthiswayoverlandamidtremendousdifficulties，joinedhimandstartedforGuayaquil，whereheandSanMartinweretoholdtheirmemorableinterview。
　　NocharactersinSpanishAmericanhistoryhavecalledforthsomuchcontroversyabouttheirrespectivemeritsanddemeritsasthesetwoheroesofindependence——BolivarandSanMartin。Evennowitseemsquiteimpossibletoobtainfromtheadmirersofeitheranopinionthatdoesfulljusticetoboth;andforeignerswhoventuretopassjudgmentarealmostcertaintoprovokecriticismfromonesetofpartisansortheother。BothBolivarandSanMartinweresonsofcountrygentlemen，aristocraticbylineageanddevotedtothecauseofindependence。Bolivarwasalert，dauntless，brilliant，impetuous，vehementlypatriotic，andyetoftencapricious，domineering，vain，ostentatious，anddisdainfulofmoralconsiderations——amasterfulman，fertileinintellect，fluentinspeechandwithpen，aninspiringleaderandoneborntocommandinstateandarmy。Quiteasearnest，equallycourageous，andupholdinginprivatelifeahigherstandardofmorals，SanMartinwasrelativelycalm，cautious，almosttaciturninmanner，andslowerinthoughtandaction。Hewasprimarilyasoldier，fittedtoorganizeandconductexpeditions，ratherthan，amanendowedwiththatsupremeconfidenceinhimselfwhichbringsenthusiasm，affection，andloyaltyinitstrain。
　　WhenSanMartinarrivedatGuayaquil，lateinJuly，1822，hishopeofannexingtheprovinceofQuitotoPeruwasrudelyshatteredbythenewsthatBolivarhadalreadydeclareditapartofColombia。Thoughitwasoutwardlycordialandeveneffusive，themeetingofthetwomenheldoutnoprospectofaccord。Inaninterchangeofviewswhichlastedbutafewhours，mutualsuspicion，jealousy，andresentmentpreventedtheirreachinganeffectiveunderstanding。TheProtector，itwouldseem，thoughttheLiberatoractuatedbyaboundlessambitionthatwouldnotendureresistance。BolivarfanciedSanMartinacraftyschemerplottingforhisownadvancement。Theyfailedtoagreeonthethreefundamentalpointsessentialtotheirfurthercooperation。
　　BolivardeclinedtogiveuptheprovinceofQuito。HerefusedalsotosendanarmyintoPeruunlesshecouldcommanditinperson，andthenhedeclinedtoundertaketheexpeditiononthegroundthatasPresidentofColombiaheoughtnottoleavetheterritoryoftherepublic。Diviningthispretext，SanMartinofferedtoserveunderhisorders——afeintthatBolivarparriedbyprotestingthathewouldnothearofanysuchself—denialonthepartofabrotherofficer。
　　Aboveall，thetwomendifferedaboutthepoliticalformtobeadoptedforthenewindependentstates。Bothofthemrealizedthatanythinglikegenuinedemocracieswasquiteimpossibleofattainmentformanyyearstocome，andthatstrongadministrationswouldbeneedfultotidetheSpanishAmericansoverfromthepoliticalinexperienceofcolonialdaysandthedisordersofrevolutiontointelligentself—government，whichcouldcomeonlyafterapracticalacquaintancewithpublicconcernsonalargescale。SanMartinbelievedthatalimitedmonarchywasthebestformofgovernmentunderthecircumstances。
　　Bolivarheldfasttotheideaofacentralizedorunitaryrepublic，inwhichactualpowershouldbeexercisedbyalifepresidentandanhereditarysenateuntilthepeople，representedinalowerhouse，shouldhavegainedasufficientamountofpoliticalexperience。
　　WhenSanMartinreturnedtoLimahefoundaffairsinaworsestatethanever。Thetyrannicalconductoftheofficerhehadleftinchargehadprovokedanuprisingthatmadehispositioninsupportable。Consciousthathismissionhadcometoanendandcertainthat，unlesshegaveway，acollisionwithBolivarwasinevitable，SanMartinresolvedtosacrificehimselflestharmbefallthecommoncauseinwhichbothhaddonesuchyeomanservice。Accordinglyheresignedhispowerintothehandsofaconstituentcongressandleftthecountry。ButwhenhefoundthatnohappierfortuneawaitedhiminChileandinhisownnativeland，SanMartindecidedtoabandonSpanishAmericaforeverandgointoselfimposedexile。Brokeninhealthandspirit，hetookuphisresidenceinFrance，arecipientofbountyfromaSpaniardwhohadoncebeenhiscomradeinarms。