PrefaceTheWestminsterReviewforApril1860，containedanarticleentitled"ParliamentaryReform：theDangersandtheSafeguards。"
InthatarticleIventuredtopredictsomeresultsofpoliticalchangesthenproposed。
Reducedtoitssimplestexpression，thethesismaintainedwasthat，unlessdueprecautionsweretaken，increaseoffreedominformwouldbefollowedbydecreaseoffreedominfact。NothinghasoccurredtoalterthebeliefIthenexpressed。Thedriftoflegislationsincethattimehasbeenofthekindanticipated。
Dictatorialmeasures，rapidlymultiplied，havetendedcontinuallytonarrowthelibertiesofindividuals;andhavedonethisinadoubleway。Regulationshavebeenmadeinyearly—growingnumbers，restrainingthecitizenindirectionswherehisactionswerepreviouslyunchecked，andcompellingactionswhichpreviouslyhemightperformornotasheliked;andatthesametimeheavierpublicburdens，chieflylocal，havefurtherrestrictedhisfreedom，bylesseningthatportionofhisearningswhichhecanspendashepleases，andaugmentingtheportiontakenfromhimtobespentaspublicagentsplease。
Thecausesoftheseforetoldeffects，theninoperation，continueinoperation——are，indeed，likelytobestrengthened;
andfindingthattheconclusionsdrawnrespectingthesecausesandeffectshaveprovedtrue，Ihavebeenpromptedtosetforthandemphasizekindredconclusionsrespectingthefuture，anddowhatlittlemaybedonetowardsawakeningattentiontothreatenedevils。
Forthispurposewerewrittenthefourfollowingarticles，originallypublishedintheContemporaryReviewforFebruary，April，May，JuneandJulyofthisyear。Tomeetcertaincriticismsandtoremovesomeoftheobjectionslikelytoberaised，Ihavenowaddedapostscript。
Bayswater，July，1884
THENEWTORYISM
MostofthosewhonowpassasLiberals，areToriesofanewtype。ThisisaparadoxwhichIproposetojustify。ThatImayjustifyit，Imustfirstpointoutwhatthetwopoliticalpartiesoriginallywere;andImustthenaskthereadertobearwithmewhileIremindhimoffactsheisfamiliarwith，thatImayimpressonhimtheintrinsicnaturesofToryismandLiberalismproperlysocalled。
Datingbacktoanearlierperiodthantheirnames，thetwopoliticalpartiesatfirststoodrespectivelyfortwoopposedtypesofsocialorganization，broadlydistinguishableasthemilitantandtheindustrial——typeswhicharecharacterized，theonebytheregimeofstatus，almostuniversalinancientdays，andtheotherbytheregimeofcontract，whichhasbecomegeneralinmoderndays，chieflyamongtheWesternnations，andespeciallyamongourselvesandtheAmericans。If，insteadofusingtheword"co—operation"inalimitedsense，weuseitinitswidestsense，assignifyingthecombinedactivitiesofcitizensunderwhateversystemofregulation;thenthesetwoaredefinableasthesystemofcompulsoryco—operationandthesystemofvoluntaryco—operation。Thetypicalstructureoftheoneweseeinanarmyformedofconscripts，inwhichtheunitsintheirseveralgradeshavetofulfilcommandsunderpainofdeath，andreceivefoodandclothingandpay，arbitrarilyapportioned;whilethetypicalstructureoftheotherweseeinabodyofproducersordistributors，whoseverallyagreetospecifiedpaymentsinreturnforspecifiedservices，andmayatwill，afterduenotice，leavetheorganizationiftheydonotlikeit。
DuringsocialevolutioninEngland，thedistinctionbetweenthesetwofundamentally—opposedformsofco—operation，madeitsappearancegradually;butlongbeforethenamesToryandWhigcameintouse，thepartieswerebecomingtraceable，andtheirconnexionswithmilitancyandindustrialismrespectively，werevaguelyshown。Thetruthisfamiliarthat，hereaselsewhere，itwashabituallybytown—populations，formedofworkersandtradersaccustomedtoco—operateundercontract，thatresistancesweremadetothatcoerciverulewhichcharacterizesco—operationunderstatus。While，conversely，cooperationunderstatus，arisingfrom，andadjustedto，chronicwarfare，wassupportedinruraldistricts，originallypeopledbymilitarychiefsandtheirdependents，wheretheprimitiveideasandtraditionssurvived。
Moreover，thiscontrastinpoliticalleanings，shownbeforeWhigandToryprinciplesbecameclearlydistinguished，continuedtobeshownafterwards。AttheperiodoftheRevolution，"whilethevillagesandsmallertownsweremonopolizedbyTories，thelargercities，themanufacturingdistricts，andtheportsofcommerce，formedthestrongholdsoftheWhigs。"Andthat，spiteofexceptions，thelikegeneralrelationstillexists，needsnoproving。
Suchwerethenaturesofthetwopartiesasindicatedbytheirorigins。Observe，now，howtheirnatureswereindicatedbytheirearlydoctrinesanddeeds。WhiggismbeganwithresistancetoCharlesIIandhiscabal，intheireffortstore—establishuncheckedmonarchicalpower。TheWhigs"regardedthemonarchyasacivilinstitution，establishedbythenationforthebenefitofallitsmembers;"whilewiththeTories"themonarchwasthedelegateofheaven。"Andthesedoctrinesinvolvedthebeliefs，theonethatsubjectionofcitizentorulerwasconditional，andtheotherthatitwasunconditional。DescribingWhigandToryasconceivedattheendoftheseventeenthcentury，somefiftyyearsbeforehewrotehisDissertationonParties，Bolingbrokesays：——
"Thepowerandmajestyofthepeople，anoriginalcontract，theauthorityandindependencyofParliaments，liberty，resistance，exclusion，abdication，deposition;thesewereideasassociated，atthattime，totheideaofaWhig，andsupposedbyeveryWhigtobeincommunicable，andinconsistentwiththeideaofaTory。
"Divine，hereditary，indefeasibleright，linealsuccession，passive—obedience，prerogative，non—resistance，slavery，nay，andsometimespoperytoo，wereassociatedinmanymindstotheideaofaTory，anddeemedincommunicableandinconsistent，inthesamemanner，withtheideaofaWhig。"DissertationonParties，p。5[1735，p。4]。
Andifwecomparethesedescriptions，weseethatintheonepartytherewasadesiretoresistanddecreasethecoercivepoweroftheruleroverthesubject，andintheotherpartytomaintainorincreasehiscoercivepower。Thisdistinctionintheiraims——adistinctionwhichtranscendsinmeaningandimportanceallotherpoliticaldistinctions——wasdisplayedintheirearlydoings。WhigprincipleswereexemplifiedintheHabeasCorpusAct，andinthemeasurebywhichjudgesweremadeindependentoftheCrown;indefeatoftheNon—ResistingTestBill，whichproposedforlegislatorsandofficialsacompulsoryoaththattheywouldinnocaseresistthekingbyarms;and，later，theywereexemplifiedintheBillofrights，framedtosecuresubjectsagainstmonarchicalaggressions。TheseActshadthesameintrinsicnature。Theprincipleofcompulsoryco—operationthroughoutsociallifewasweakenedbythem，andtheprincipleofvoluntaryco—operationstrengthened。Thatatasubsequentperiodthepolicyofthepartyhadthesamegeneraltendency，iswellshownbyaremarkofMrGreenconcerningtheperiodofWhigpowerafterthedeathofAnne：——
"Beforethefiftyyearsoftheirrulehadpassed，Englishmenhadforgottenthatitwaspossibletopersecutefordifferencesofreligion，ortoputdownthelibertyofthepress，ortotamperwiththeadministrationofjustice，ortorulewithoutaParliament。"
ShortHistory，p。705。
[J。R。Green，ShortHistoryoftheEnglishPeople，London，1874。
The（later）editionswhichIhavebeenabletoconsulthave’opinion’inplaceof’religion’。]
Andnow，passingoverthewar—periodwhichclosedthelastcenturyandbeganthis，duringwhichthatextensionofindividualfreedompreviouslygainedwaslost，andtheretrogrademovementtowardsthesocialtypepropertomilitancywasshownbyallkindsofcoercivemeasures，fromthosewhichtookbyforcethepersonsandpropertyofcitizensforwar—purposestothosewhichsuppressedpublicmeetingsandsoughttogagthepress，letusrecallthegeneralcharactersofthosechangeseffectedbyWhigsorLiberalsafterthereestablishmentofpeacepermittedrevivaloftheindustrialregimeandreturntoitsappropriatetypeofstructure。UndergrowingWhiginfluencetherecamerepealofthelawsforbiddingcombinationsamongartisans，aswellasofthosewhichinterferedwiththeirfreedomoftravelling。Therewasthemeasurebywhich，underWhigpressure，Dissenterswereallowedtobelieveastheypleasedwithoutsufferingcertaincivilpenalties;andtherewastheWhigmeasure，carriedbyToriesundercompulsion，whichenabledCatholicstoprofesstheirreligionwithoutlosingpartoftheirfreedom。TheareaoflibertywasextendedbyActswhichforbadethebuyingofnegroesandtheholdingoftheminbondage。TheEastIndiaCompany’smonopolywasabolished，andtradewiththeEastmadeopentoall。
Thepoliticalserfdomoftheunrepresentedwasnarrowedinarea，bothbytheReformBillandtheMunicipalReformBill;sothatalikegenerallyandlocally，themanywerelessunderthecoercionofthefew。Dissenters，nolongerobligedtosubmittotheecclesiasticalformofmarriage，weremadefreetowedbyapurelycivilrite。Latercamediminutionandremovalofrestraintsonthebuyingofforeigncommoditiesandtheemploymentofforeignvesselsandforeignsailors;andlaterstilltheremovalofthoseburdensonthepresswhichwereoriginallyimposedtohinderthediffusionofopinion。Andofallthesechangesitisunquestionablethat，whethermadeornotbyLiberalsthemselves，theyweremadeinconformitywithprinciplesprofessedandurgedbyLiberals。
ButwhydoIenumeratefactssowellknowntoall？Simplybecause，asintimatedattheoutset，itseemsneedfultoremindeverybodywhatLiberalismwasinthepast，thattheymayperceiveitsunlikenesstotheso—calledLiberalismofthepresent。Itwouldbeinexcusabletonamethesevariousmeasuresforthepurposeofpointingoutthecharactercommontothem，wereitnotthatinourdaymenhaveforgottentheircommoncharacter。Theydonotrememberthat，inoneorotherway，allthesetrulyLiberalchangesdiminishedcompulsoryco—operationthroughoutsociallifeandincreasedvoluntarycooperation。Theyhaveforgottenthat，inonedirectionorother，theydiminishedtherangeofgovernmentalauthority，andincreasedtheareawithinwhicheachcitizenmayactunchecked。TheyhavelostsightofthetruththatinpasttimesLiberalismhabituallystoodforindividualfreedomversusState—coercion。
Andnowcomestheinquiry——HowisitthatLiberalshavelostsightofthis？HowisitthatLiberalism，gettingmoreandmoreintopower，hasgrownmoreandmorecoerciveinitslegislation？Howisitthat，eitherdirectlythroughitsownmajoritiesorindirectlythroughaidgiveninsuchcasestothemajoritiesofitsopponents，Liberalismhastoanincreasingextentadoptedthepolicyofdictatingtheactionsofcitizens，and，byconsequence，diminishingtherangethroughoutwhichtheiractionsremainfree？Howarewetoexplainthisspreadingconfusionofthoughtwhichhasledit，inpursuitofwhatappearstobepublicgood，toinvertthemethodbywhichinearlierdaysitachievedpublicgood？
Unaccountableasatfirstsightthisunconsciouschangeofpolicyseems，weshallfindthatithasarisenquitenaturally。
Giventheunanalyticalthoughtordinarilybroughttobearonpoliticalmatters，and，underexistingconditions，nothingelsewastobeexpected。Tomakethisclearsomeparentheticexplanationsareneedful。
Fromthelowesttothehighestcreatures，intelligenceprogressesbyactsofdiscrimination;anditcontinuessotoprogressamongmen，fromthemostignoranttothemostcultured。
Toclassrightly——toputinthesamegroupthingswhichareofessentiallythesamenatures，andinothergroupsthingsofnaturesessentiallydifferentisthefundamentalconditiontorightguidanceofactions。Beginningwithrudimentaryvision，whichgiveswarningthatsomelargeopaquebodyispassingnear（justasclosedeyesturnedtothewindow，perceivingtheshadecausedbyahandputbeforethem，tellsusofsomethingmovinginfront），theadvanceistodevelopedvision，which，byexactly—appreciatedcombinationsofforms，colours，andmotions，identifiesobjectsatgreatdistancesaspreyorenemies，andsomakesitpossibletoimprovetheadjustmentsofconductforsecuringfoodorevadingdeath。Thatprogressingperceptionofdifferencesandconsequentgreatercorrectnessofclassing，constitutes，underoneofitschiefaspects，thegrowthofintelligence，isequallyseenwhenwepassfromtherelativelysimplephysicalvisiontotherelativelycomplexintellectualvision——thevisionthroughtheagencyofwhich，thingspreviouslygroupedbycertaineternalresemblancesorbycertainextrinsiccircumstances，cometobemoretrulygroupedinconformitywiththeirintrinsicstructuresornatures。
Undevelopedintellectualvisionisjustasindiscriminatinganderroneousinitsclassingsasundevelopedphysicalvision。
Instancetheearlyarrangementofplantsintothegroups，trees，shrubs，andherbs：size，themostconspicuoustrait，beingthegroundofdistinction;andtheassemblagesformedbeingsuchasunitedmanyplantsextremelyunlikeintheirnatures，andseparatedothersthatarenearakin。Orstillbetter，takethepopularclassificationwhichputstogetherunderthesamegeneralname，fishandshell—fish，andunderthesub—name，shell—fish，putstogethercrustaceansandmolluscs;nay，whichgoesfurther，andregardsasfishthecetaceanmammals。Partlybecauseofthelikenessintheirmodesoflifeasinhabitingthewater，andpartlybecauseofsomegeneralresemblanceintheirflavours，creaturesthatareintheiressentialnaturesfarmorewidelyseparatedthanafishisfromabird，areassociatedinthesameclassandinthesamesub—class。
Nowthegeneraltruththusexemplified，holdsthroughoutthosehigherrangesofintellectualvisionconcernedwiththingsnotpresentabletothesenses，and，amongothers，suchthingsaspoliticalinstitutionsandpoliticalmeasures。Forwhenthinkingofthese，too，theresultsofinadequateintellectualfaculty，orinadequatecultureofit，orboth，areerroneousclassingsandconsequenterroneousconclusions。Indeed，theliabilitytoerrorisheremuchgreater;sincethethingswithwhichtheintellectisconcerneddonotadmitofexaminationinthesameeasyway。
Youcannottouchorseeapoliticalinstitution：itcanbeknownonlybyaneffortofconstructiveimagination。Neithercanyouapprehendbyphysicalperceptionapoliticalmeasure：thisnolessrequiresaprocessofmentalrepresentationbywhichitselementsareputtogetherinthought，andtheessentialnatureofthecombinationconceived。Here，therefore，stillmorethaninthecasesabovenamed，defectiveintellectualvisionisshowningroupingbyeternalcharacters，orextrinsiccircumstances。Howinstitutionsarewronglyclassedfromthiscause，weseeinthecommonnotionthattheRomanRepublicwasapopularformofgovernment。LookintotheearlyideasoftheFrenchrevolutionistswhoaimedatanidealstateoffreedom，andyoufindthatthepoliticalformsanddeedsoftheRomansweretheirmodels;andevennowahistorianmightbenamedwhoinstancesthecorruptionsoftheRomanRepublicasshowinguswhatpopulargovernmentleadsto。YettheresemblancebetweentheinstitutionsoftheRomansandfreeinstitutionsproperlyso—called，waslessthanthatbetweenasharkandaporpoise——aresemblanceofgeneraleternalformaccompanyingwidelydifferentinternalstructures。FortheRomanGovernmentwasthatofasmalloligarchywithinalargeroligarchy：themembersofeachbeinguncheckedautocrats。Asocietyinwhichtherelativelyfewmenwhohadpoliticalpower，andwereinaqualifiedsensefree，weresomanypettydespots，holdingnotonlyslavesanddependentsbutevenchildreninabondagenolessabsolutethanthatinwhichtheyheldtheircattle，was，byitsintrinsicnature，morenearlyalliedtoanordinarydespotismthantoasocietyofcitizenspoliticallyequal。
Passingnowtoourspecialquestion，wemayunderstandthekindofconfusioninwhichLiberalismhaslostitself;andtheoriginofthosemistakenclassingsofpoliticalmeasureswhichhavemisleditclassings，asweshallsee，byconspicuouseternaltraitsinsteadofbyinternalnatures。Forwhat，inthepopularapprehensionandintheapprehensionofthosewhoeffectedthem，werethechangesmadebyLiberalsinthepast？Theywereabolitionsofgrievancessufferedbythepeople，orbyportionsofthem：thiswasthecommontraittheyhadwhichmostimpresseditselfonmen’sminds。Theyweremitigationsofevilswhichhaddirectlyorindirectlybeenfeltbylargeclassesofcitizens，ascausesofmiseryorashindrancestohappiness。Andsince，inthemindsofmost，arectifiedevilisequivalenttoanachievedgood，thesemeasurescametobethoughtofassomanypositivebenefits;andthewelfareofthemanycametobeconceivedalikebyLiberalstatesmenandLiberalvotersastheaimofLiberalism。
Hencetheconfusion。Thegainingofapopulargood，beingtheeternalconspicuoustraitcommontoLiberalmeasuresinearlierdays（thenineachcasegainedbyarelaxationofrestraints），ithashappenedthatpopulargoodhascometobesoughtbyLiberals，notasanendtobeindirectlygainedbyrelaxationsofrestraints，butastheendtobedirectlygained。Andseekingtogainitdirectly，theyhaveusedmethodsintrinsicallyopposedtothoseoriginallyused。
Andnow，havingseenhowthisreversalofpolicyhasarisen（orpartialreversal，Ishouldsay，fortherecentBurialsActandtheeffortstoremoveallremainingreligiousinequalities，showcontinuanceoftheoriginalpolicyincertaindirections），letusproceedtocontemplatetheextenttowhichithasbeencarriedduringrecenttimes，andthestillgreaterextenttowhichthefuturewillseeitcarriedifcurrentideasandfeelingscontinuetopredominate。
Beforeproceeding，itmaybewelltosaythatnoreflectionsareintendedonthemotiveswhichpromptedoneafteranotherofthesevariousrestraintsanddictations。Thesemotivesweredoubtlessinnearlyallcasesgood。ItmustbeadmittedthattherestrictionsplacedbyanActof1870，ontheemploymentofwomenandchildreninTurkey—reddyeingworks，were，inintention，nolessphilanthropicthanthoseofEdwardVI，whichprescribedtheminimumtimeforwhichajourneymanshouldberetained。Withoutquestion，theSeedSupply（Ireland）Actof1880，whichempoweredguardianstobuyseedforpoortenants，andthentoseeitproperlyplanted，wasmovedbyadesireforpublicwelfarenolessgreatthanthatwhichin1533prescribedthenumberofsheepatenantmightkeep，orthatof1597，whichcommandedthatdecayedhousesofhusbandryshouldberebuilt。Nobodywilldisputethatthevariousmeasuresoflateyearstakenforrestrictingthesaleofintoxicatingliquors，havebeentakenasmuchwithaviewtopublicmoralsaswerethemeasurestakenofoldforcheckingtheevilsofluxury;as，forinstance，inthefourteenthcentury，whendietaswellasdresswasrestricted。
EveryonemustseethattheedictsissuedbyHenryVIIItopreventthelowerclassesfromplayingdice，cards，bowls，etc。，werenotmorepromptedbydesireforpopularwelfarethanweretheActspassedoflatetocheckgambling。
Further，Idonotintendheretoquestionthewisdomofthesemoderninterferences，whichConservativesandLiberalsviewithoneanotherinmultiplying，anymorethantoquestionthewisdomofthoseancientoneswhichtheyinmanycasesresemble。Wewillnotnowconsiderwhethertheplansoflateadoptedforpreservingthelivesofsailors，areorarenotmorejudiciousthanthatsweepingScotchmeasurewhich，inthemiddleofthefifteenthcentury，prohibitedcaptainsfromleavingharbourduringthewinter。Forthepresent，itshallremainundebatedwhetherthereisabetterwarrantforgivingsanitaryofficerspowerstosearchcertainpremisesforunfitfood，thantherewasforthelawofEdwardIII，underwhichinnkeepersatseaportsweresworntosearchtheirgueststopreventtheexportationofmoneyorplate。
WewillassumethatthereisnolesssenseinthatclauseoftheCanal—boatAct，whichforbidsanownertoboardgratuitouslythechildrenoftheboatmen，thantherewasintheSpitalfieldsActs，which，upto1824，forthebenefitoftheartisans，forbadethemanufacturerstofixtheirfactoriesmorethantenmilesfromtheRoyalExchange。
Weexclude，then，thesequestionsofphilanthropicmotiveandwisejudgement，takingbothofthemforgranted;andhaveheretoconcernourselvessolelywiththecompulsorynatureofthemeasureswhich，forgoodorevilasthecasemaybe，havebeenputinforceduringperiodsofLiberalascendancy。
Tobringtheillustrationswithincompass，letuscommencewith1860，underthesecondadministrationofLordPalmerston。Inthatyear，therestrictionsoftheFactoriesActwereextendedtobleachinganddyeingworks;authoritywasgiventoprovideanalystsoffoodanddrink，tobepaidoutoflocalrates;therewasanActprovidingforinspectionofgas—works，aswellasforfixingqualityofgasandlimitingprice;therewastheActwhich，inadditiontofurthermineinspection，madeitpenaltoemployboysundertwelvenotattendingschoolandunabletoreadandwrite。In1861occurredanextensionofthecompulsoryprovisionsoftheFactoriesActtolace—works;powerwasgiventopoor—lawguardians，etc。，toenforcevaccination;localboardswereauthorizedtofixratesofhireforhorses，ponies，mules，asses，andboats;andcertainlocally—formedbodieshadgiventothempowersoftaxingthelocalityforruraldrainageandirrigationworks，andforsupplyingwatertocattle。In1862anActwaspassedforrestrictingtheemploymentofwomenandchildreninopen—airbleaching;andanActformakingillegalacoal—minewithasingleshaft，orwithshaftsseparatedbylessthanaspecifiedspace;aswellasanActgivingtheCouncilofMedicalEducationtheexclusiverighttopublishaPharmacopoeia，thepriceofwhichistobefixedbytheTreasury。In1863cametheextensionofcompulsoryvaccinationtoScotland，andalsotoIreland;therecametheempoweringofcertainboardstoborrowmoneyrepayablefromthelocalrates，toemployandpaythoseoutofwork;therecametheauthorizingoftownauthoritiestotakepossessionofneglectedornamentalspaces，andratetheinhabitantsfortheirsupport;therecametheBakehousesRegulationAct，which，besidesspecifyingminimumageofemployeesoccupiedbetweencertainhours，prescribedperiodicallime—washing，threecoatsofpaintwhenpainted，andcleaningwithhotwaterandsoapatleastonceinsixmonths;andtherecamealsoanActgivingamagistrateauthoritytodecideonthewholesomenessorunwholesomenessoffoodbroughtbeforehimbyaninspector。Ofcompulsorylegislationdatingfrom1864，maybenamedanextensionoftheFactoriesActtovariousadditionaltrades，includingregulationsforcleansingandventilation，andspecifyingofcertainemployeesinmatch—works，thattheymightnottakemealsonthepremisesexceptinthewood—cuttingplaces。
AlsotherewerepassedaChimney—SweepersAct，anActforfurtherregulatingthesaleofbeerinIreland，anActforcompulsorytestingofcablesandanchors，anActextendingthePublicWorksActof1863，andtheContagiousDiseasesAct：whichlastgavethepolice，inspecifiedplaces，powerswhich，inrespectofcertainclassesofwomen，abolishedsundryofthosesafeguardstoindividualfreedomestablishedinpasttimes。Theyear1865
witnessedfurtherprovisionforthereceptionandtemporaryreliefofwanderersatthecostofratepayers;anotherpublic—houseclosingAct;andanActmakingcompulsoryregulationsforextinguishingfiresinLondon。Then，undertheMinistryofLordJohnRussell，in1866，havetobenamedanActtoregulatecattle—sheds，etc。，inScotland，givinglocalauthoritiespowerstoinspectsanitaryconditionsandfixthenumbersofcattle;anActforcinghop—growerstolabeltheirbagswiththeyearandplaceofgrowthandthetrueweight，andgivingpolicepowersofsearch;anActtofacilitatethebuildingoflodging—housesinIreland，andprovidingforregulationoftheinmates;aPublicHealthAct，underwhichthereisregistrationoflodging—housesandStationofoccupants，withinspectionanddirectionsforlime—washing，etc。;andaPublicLibrariesAct，givinglocalpowersbywhichamajoritycantaxaminorityfortheirbooks。
PassingnowtothelegislationunderthefirstMinistryofMrGladstone，wehave，in1869，theestablishmentofState—telegraphy，withtheaccompanyinginterdictontelegraphingthroughanyotheragency;wehavetheempoweringaSecretaryofStatetoregulatehiredconveyancesinLondon;wehavefurtherandmorestringentregulationstopreventcattle—diseasesfromspreading，anotherBeerhouseRegulationAct，andaSea—birdsPreservationAct（ensuringgreatermortalityoffish）。In1870wehavealawauthorizingtheBoardofPublicWorkstomakeadvancesforlandlords’improvementsandforpurchasebytenants;wehavetheActwhichenablestheEducationDepartmenttoformschool—boardswhichshallpurchasesitesforschools，andmayprovidefreeschoolssupportedbylocalrates，andenablingschool—boardstopayachild’sfees，tocompelparentstosendtheirchildren，etc。，etc。;wehaveafurtherFactoriesandWorkshopsAct，making，amongotherrestrictions，someontheemploymentofwomenandchildreninfruit—preservingandfishcuringworks。In1871wemeetwithanamendedMerchantShippingAct，directingofficersoftheBoardofTradetorecordthedraughtofsea—goingvesselsleavingport;thereisanotherFactoryandWorkshopsAct，makingfurtherrestrictions;thereisaPedlar’sAct，inflictingpenaltiesforhawkingwithoutacertificate，andlimitingthedistrictwithinwhichthecertificateholds，aswellasgivingthepolicepowertosearchpedlars’packs;andtherearefurthermeasuresforenforcingvaccination。Theyear1872had，amongotherActs，onewhichmakesitillegaltotakeforhiremorethanonechildtonurse，unlessinahouseregisteredbytheauthorities，whoprescribethenumberofinfantstobereceived;ithadaLicensingAct，interdictingsaleofspiritstothoseapparentlyundersixteen;
andithadanotherMerchantShippingAct，establishinganannualsurveyofpassengersteamers。Thenin1873waspassedtheAgriculturalChildren’sAct，whichmakesitpenalforafarmertoemployachildwhohasneithercertificateofelementaryeducationnorofcertainprescribedschoolattendances;andtherewaspassedaMerchantShippingAct，requiringoneachvesselascaleshowingdraughtandgivingtheBoardofTradepowertofixthenumbersofboatsandlife—savingappliancestobecarried。
TurnnowtoLiberallaw—makingunderthepresentMinistry。Wehave，in1880，alawwhichforbidsconditionaladvance—notesinpaymentofsailors’wages;alsoalawwhichdictatescertainarrangementsforthesafecarriageofgrain—cargoes;alsoalawincreasinglocalcoercionoverparentstosendtheirchildrentoschool。In1881comeslegislationtopreventtrawlingoverclam—bedsandbait—beds，andaninterdictmakingitimpossibletobuyaglassofbeeronSundayinWales。In1882theBoardofTradewasauthorizedtograntlicencestogenerateandsellelectricity，andmunicipalbodieswereenabledtolevyratesforelectric—lighting;furtherexactionsfromratepayerswereauthorizedforfacilitatingmoreaccessiblebathsandwashhouses;
andlocalauthoritieswereempoweredtomakebye—lawsforsecuringthedecentlodgingofpersonsengagedinpickingfruitandvegetables。Ofsuchlegislationduring1883maybenamedtheCheapTrainsAct，which，partlybytaxingthenationtotheextentof*400，000ayear（intheshapeofrelinquishedpassengerduty），andpartlyatthecostofrailway—proprietors，stillfurthercheapenstravellingforworkmen：theBoardofTrade，throughtheRailwayCommissioners，beingempoweredtoensuresufficientlygoodandfrequentaccommodation。Again，thereistheActwhich，underpenaltyof*10fordisobedience，forbidsthepaymentofwagestoworkmenatorwithinpublic—houses;thereisanotherFactoryandWorkshopsAct，commandinginspectionofwhiteleadworks（toseethatthereareprovidedoveralls，respirators，baths，acidulateddrinks，etc。）andofbake—houses，regulatingtimesofemploymentinboth，andprescribingindetailsomeconstructionsforthelast，whicharetobekeptinaconditionsatisfactorytotheinspectors。
Butwearefarfromforminganadequateconceptionifwelookonlyatthecompulsorylegislationwhichhasactuallybeenestablishedoflateyears。Wemustlookalsoatthatwhichisadvocated，andwhichthreatenstobefarmoresweepinginrangeandstringentincharacter。WehavelatelyhadaCabinetMinister，oneofthemostadvancedLiberals，so—called，whopooh—poohstheplansofthelateGovernmentforimprovingindustrialdwellingsassomuch"tinkering;"andcontendsforeffectualcoerciontobeexercisedoverownersofsmallhouses，overland—owners，andoverrate—payers。HereisanotherCabinetMinisterwho，addressinghisconstituents，speaksslightinglyofthedoingsofphilanthropicsocietiesandreligiousbodiestohelpthepoor，andsaysthat"thewholeofthepeopleofthiscountryoughttolookuponthisworkasbeingtheirownwork："
thatistosay，someextensiveGovernmentmeasureiscalledfor。
Again，wehaveaRadicalmemberofParliamentwholeadsalargeandpowerfulbody，aimingwithannually—increasingpromiseofsuccess，toenforcesobrietybygivingtolocalmajoritiespowerstopreventfreedomofexchangeinrespectofcertaincommodities。
Regulationofthehoursoflabourforcertainclasses，whichhasbeenmademoreandmoregeneralbysuccessiveextensionsoftheFactoriesActs，islikelynowtobemadestillmoregeneral：ameasureistobeproposedbringingtheemployeesinallshopsundersuchregulation。Thereisarisingdemand，too，thateducationshallbemadegratisforall。Thepaymentofschool—feesisbeginningtobedenouncedasawrong：theStatemusttakethewholeburden。Moreover，itisproposedbymanythattheState，regardedasanundoubtedlycompetentjudgeofwhatconstitutesgoodeducationforthepoor，shallundertakealsotoprescribegoodeducationforthemiddleclasses——shallstampthechildrenofthese，too，afteraStatepattern，concerningthegoodnessofwhichtheyhavenomoredoubtthantheChinesehadwhentheyfixedtheirs。Thenthereisthe"endowmentofresearch，"oflateenergeticallyurged。AlreadytheGovernmentgiveseveryyearthesumof*4，000forthispurpose，tobedistributedthroughtheRoyalSociety;andintheabsenceofthosewhohavestrongmotivesforresistingthepressureoftheinterestedbackedbythosetheyeasilypersuade，itmayby—and—byestablishthatpaid"priesthoodofscience"longagoadvocatedbySirDavidBrewster。Oncemore，plausibleproposalsaremadethatthereshouldbeorganizedasystemofcompulsoryinsurance，bywhichmenduringtheirearlylivesshallbeforcedtoprovideforthetimewhentheywillbeincapacitated。
Nordoesenumerationofthesefurthermeasuresofcoerciverule，loomingonusnearathandorinthedistance，completetheaccount。Nothingmorethancursoryallusionhasyetbeenmadetothataccompanyingcompulsionwhichtakestheformofincreasedtaxation，generalandlocal。Partlyfordefrayingthecostsofcaringouttheseever—multiplyingcoercivemeasures，eachofwhichrequiresanadditionalstaffofofficers，andpartlytomeettheoutlayfornewpublicinstitutions，suchasboard—schools，freelibraries，publicmuseums，bathsandwash—houses，recreationgrounds，etc。，etc。，localratesareyearafteryearincreased;asthegeneraltaxationisincreasedbygrantsforeducationandtothedepartmentsofscienceandart，etc。Everyoneoftheseinvolvesfurthercoercion——restrictsstillmorethefreedomofthecitizen。Fortheimpliedaddressaccompanyingeveryadditionalexactionis——"Hithertoyouhavebeenfreetospendthisportionofyourearningsinanywaywhichpleasedyou;hereafteryoushallnotbefreesotospendit，butwewillspenditforthegeneralbenefit。"Thus，eitherdirectlyorindirectly，andinmostcasesbothatonce，thecitizenisateachfurtherstageinthegrowthofthiscompulsorylegislation，deprivedofsomelibertywhichhepreviouslyhad。
Such，then，arethedoingsofthepartywhichclaimsthenameofLiberal;andwhichcallsitselfLiberalasbeingtheadvocateofextendedfreedom。
Idoubtnotthatmanyamemberofthepartyhasreadtheprecedingsectionwithimpatience;wanting，ashedoes，topointoutanimmenseoversightwhichhethinksdestroysthevalidityoftheargument。"Youforget，"hewishestosay，"thefundamentaldifferencebetweenthepowerwhich，inthepast，establishedthoserestraintsthatLiberalismabolished，andthepowerwhich，inthepresent，establishestherestraintsyoucallanti—Liberal。
Youforgetthattheonewasanirresponsiblepower，whiletheotherisaresponsiblepower。YouforgetthatifbytherecentlegislationofLiberals，peoplearevariouslyregulated，thebodywhichregulatesthemisoftheirowncreating，andhastheirwarrantforitsacts。"
Myansweris，thatIhavenotforgottenthisdifference，butampreparedtocontendthatthedifferenceisinlargemeasureirrelevanttotheissue。
Inthefirstplace，therealissueiswhetherthelivesofcitizensaremoreinterferedwiththantheywere;notthenatureoftheagencywhichinterfereswiththem。Takeasimplercase。A
memberofatrades’unionhasjoinedothersinestablishinganorganizationofapurelyrepresentativecharacter。Byitheiscompelledtostrikeifamajoritysodecide;heisforbiddentoacceptworksaveundertheconditionstheydictate;heispreventedfromprofitingbyhissuperiorabilityorenergytotheextenthemightdowereitnotfortheirinterdict。Hecannotdisobeywithoutabandoningthosepecuniarybenefitsoftheorganizationforwhichhehassubscribed，andbringingonhimselfthepersecution，andperhapsviolence，ofhisfellows。Isheanythelesscoercedbecausethebodycoercinghimisonewhichhehadanequalvoicewiththerestinforming？
Inthesecondplace，ifitbeobjectedthattheanalogyisfaulty，sincethegoverningbodyofanation，towhich，asprotectorofthenationallifeandinterests，allmustsubmitunderpenaltyofsocialdisorganization，hasafarhigherauthorityovercitizensthanthegovernmentofanyprivateorganizationcanhaveoveritsmembers;thenthereplyisthat，grantingthedifference，theanswermadecontinuesvalid。Ifmenusetheirlibertyinsuchawayastosurrendertheirliberty，aretheythereafteranythelessslaves？Ifpeoplebyaplebisciteelectamandespotoverthem，dotheyremainfreebecausethedespotismwasoftheirownmaking？Arethecoerciveedictsissuedbyhimtoberegardedaslegitimatebecausetheyaretheultimateoutcomeoftheirownvotes？AswellmightitbearguedthattheEastAfrican，whobreaksaspearinanother’spresencethathemaysobecomebondsmantohim，stillretainshislibertybecausehefreelychosehismaster。
Finallyifany，notwithoutmarksofirritationasIcanimagine，repudiatethisreasoning，andsaythatthereisnotrueparallelismbetweentherelationofpeopletogovernmentwhereanResponsiblesinglerulerhasbeenpermanentlyelected，andtherelationwherearesponsiblerepresentativebodyismaintained，andfromtimetotimere—elected;thentherecomestheultimatereply——analtogetherheterodoxreply——bywhichmostwillbegreatlyastonished。Thisreplyis，thatthesemultitudinousrestrainingactsarenotdefensibleonthegroundthattheyproceedfromapopularly—chosenbody;forthattheauthorityofapopularly—chosenbodyisnomoretoberegardedasanunlimitedauthoritythantheauthorityofamonarch;andthatastrueLiberalisminthepastdisputedtheassumptionofamonarch’sunlimitedauthority，sotrueLiberalisminthepresentwilldisputetheassumptionofunlimitedparliamentaryauthority。Ofthis，however，moreanon。HereImerelyindicateitasanultimateanswer。
Meanwhileitsufficestopointoutthatuntilrecently，justasofold，trueLiberalismwasshownbyitsactstobemovingtowardsthetheoryofalimitedparliamentaryauthority。Alltheseabolitionsofrestraintsoverreligiousbeliefsandobservances，overexchangeandtransit，overtrade—combinationsandthetravelingofartisans，overthepublicationofopinions，theologicalorpolitical，etc。，etc。，weretacitassertionsofthedesirablenessoflimitation。Inthesamewaythattheabandonmentofsumptuarylaws，oflawsforbiddingthisorthatkindofamusement，oflawsdictatingmodesoffarming，andmanyothersoflikemeddlingnature，whichtookplaceinearlydays，wasanimpliedadmissionthattheStateoughtnottointerfereinsuchmatters;sothoseremovalsofhindrancestoindividualactivitiesofoneorotherkind，whichtheLiberalismofthelastgenerationeffected，werepracticalconfessionsthatinthesedirections，too，thesphereofgovernmentalactionshouldbenarrowed。Andthisrecognitionoftheproprietyofrestrictinggovernmentalactionwasapreparationforrestrictingitintheory。Oneofthemostfamiliarpoliticaltruthsisthat，inthecourseofsocialevolution，usageprecedeslaw;andthatwhenusagehasbeenwellestablisheditbecomeslawbyreceivingauthoritativeendorsementanddefinedform。Manifestlythen，Liberalisminthepast，byitspracticeoflimitation，waspreparingthewayfortheprincipleoflimitation。
Butreturningfromthesemoregeneralconsiderationstothespecialquestion，Iemphasizethereplythatthelibertywhichacitizenenjoysistobemeasured，notbythenatureofthegovernmentalmachineryhelivesunder，whetherrepresentativeorother，butbytherelativepaucityoftherestraintsitimposesonhim;andthat，whetherthismachineryisorisnotonethathehassharedinmaking，itsactionsarenotofthekindpropertoLiberalismiftheyincreasesuchrestraintsbeyondthosewhichareneedfulforpreventinghimfromdirectlyorindirectlyaggressingonhisfellows——needful，thatis，formaintainingthelibertiesofhisfellowsagainsthisinvasionsofthem：
restraintswhichare，therefore，tobedistinguishedasnegativelycoercive，notpositivelycoercive。
Probably，however，theLiberal，andstillmorethesub—speciesRadical，whomorethananyotherintheselatterdaysseemsundertheimpressionthatsolongashehasagoodendinviewheiswarrantedinexercisingovermenallthecoercionheisable，willcontinuetoprotest;knowingthathisaimispopularbenefitofsomekind，tobeachievedinsomeway，andbelievingthattheToryis，contrariwise，promptedbyclass—interestandthedesiretomaintainclass—power，hewillregarditaspalpablyabsurdtogrouphimasoneofthesamegenus，andwillscornthereasoningusedtoprovethathebelongstoit。
Perhapsananalogywillhelphimtoseeitsvalidity。If，awayinthefarEast，wherepersonalgovernmentistheonlyformofgovernmentknown，heheardfromtheinhabitantsanaccountofastrugglebywhichtheyhaddeposedacruelandviciousdespot，andputinhisplaceonewhoseactsprovedhisdesirefortheirwelfare——if，afterlisteningtotheirself—gratulations，hetoldthemthattheyhadnotessentiallychangedthenatureoftheirgovernment，hewouldgreatlyastonishthem;andprobablyhewouldhavedifficultyinmakingthemunderstandthatthesubstitutionofabenevolentdespotforamalevolentdespot，stillleftthegovernmentadespotism。SimilarlywithToryismasrightlyconceived。StandingasitdoesforcoercionbytheStateversusthefreedomoftheindividual，ToryismremainsToryism，whetheritextendsthiscoercionforselfishorunselfishreasons。Ascertainlyasthedespotisstilladespot，whetherhismotivesforarbitraryrulearegoodorbad;socertainlyistheTorystillaTory，whetherhehasegoisticoraltruisticmotivesforusingState—powertorestrictthelibertyofthecitizen，beyondthedegreerequiredformaintainingthelibertiesofothercitizens。ThealtruisticToryaswellastheegoisticTorybelongstothegenusTory;thoughheformsanewspeciesofthegenus。AndbothstandindistinctcontrastwiththeLiberalasdefinedinthedayswhenLiberalswererightlysocalled，andwhenthedefinitionwas——"onewhoadvocatesgreaterfreedomfromrestraint，especiallyinpoliticalinstitutions。"Thus，then，isjustifiedtheparadoxIsetoutwith。Aswehaveseen，ToryismandLiberalismoriginallyemerged，theonefrommilitancyandtheotherfromindustrialism。Theonestoodfortheregimeofstatusandtheotherfortheregimeofcontract——theoneforthatsystemofcompulsoryco—operationwhichaccompaniesthelegalinequalityofclasses，andtheotherforthatvoluntaryco—operationwhichaccompaniestheirlegalequality;andbeyondallquestiontheearlyactsofthetwopartieswererespectivelyforthemaintenanceofagencieswhicheffectthiscompulsoryco—operation，andfortheweakeningorcurbingofthem。
Manifestlytheimplicationisthat，insofarasithasbeenextendingthesystemofcompulsion，whatisnowcalledLiberalismisanewformofToryism。
Howtrulythisisso，weshallseestillmoreclearlyonlookingatthefactstheothersideupwards，whichwewillpresentlydo。
NOTE——Bysundrynewspaperswhichnoticedthisarticlewhenitwasoriginallypublished，themeaningoftheaboveparagraphswassupposedtobethatLiberalsandTorieshavechangedplaces。
This，however，isbynomeanstheimplication。AnewspeciesofTorymayarisewithoutdisappearanceoftheoriginalspecies。
Whensaying，asonpage70，thatinourdays"ConservativesandLiberalsviewithoneanotherinmultiplying"interferences，I
clearlyimpliedthebeliefthatwhileLiberalshavetakentocoercivelegislation，Conservativeshavenotabandonedit。
Nevertheless，itistruethatthelawsmadebyLiberalsaresogreatlyincreasingthecompulsionsandrestraintsexercisedovercitizens，thatamongConservativeswhosufferfromthisaggressivenessthereisgrowingupatendencytoresistit。Proofisfurnishedbythefactthatthe"LibertyandPropertyDefenceLeague，"largelyconsistingofConservatives，hastakenforitsmotto"IndividualismversusSocialism。"Sothatifthepresentdriftofthingscontinues，itmaybyandbyreallyhappenthattheTorieswillbedefendersoflibertieswhichtheLiberals，inpursuitofwhattheythinkpopularwelfare，trampleunderfoot。
THECOMINGSLAVERY
Thekinshipofpitytoloveisshownamongotherwaysinthis，thatitidealizesitsobject。Sympathywithoneinsufferingsuppresses，forthetimebeing，remembranceofhistransgressions。Thefeelingwhichventsitselfin"poorfellow！"
onseeingoneinagony，excludesthethoughtof"badfellow，"
whichmightatanothertimearise。Naturally，then，ifthewretchedareunknownorbutvaguelyknown，allthedemeritstheymayhaveareignored;andthusithappensthatwhen，asjustnow，themiseriesofthepooraredepicted，theyarethoughtofasthemiseriesofthedeservingpoor，insteadofbeingthoughtof，asinlargemeasuretheyshouldbe，asthemiseriesoftheundeservingpoor。Thosewhosehardshipsaresetforthinpamphletsandproclaimedinsermonsandspeecheswhichechothroughoutsociety，areassumedtobeallworthysouls，grievouslywronged;andnoneofthemarethoughtofasbearingthepenaltiesoftheirownmisdeeds。
OnhailingacabinaLondonstreet，itissurprisinghowfrequentlythedoorisofficiouslyopenedbyonewhoexpectstogetsomethingforhistrouble。Thesurpriselessensaftercountingthemanyloungersabouttavern—doors，orafterobservingthequicknesswithwhichastreet—performance，orprocession，drawsfromneighbouringslumsandstable—yardsagroupofidlers。
Seeinghownumeroustheyareineverysmallarea，itbecomesmanifestthattensofthousandsofsuchswarmthroughLondon。
"Theyhavenowork，"yousay。Sayratherthattheyeitherrefuseworkorquicklyturnthemselvesoutofit。Theyaresimplygood—for—nothings，whoinonewayorotherliveonthegood—for—somethings——vagrantsandsots，criminalsandthoseonthewaytocrime，youthswhoareburdensonhard—workedparents，menwhoappropriatethewagesoftheirwives，fellowswhosharethegainsofprostitutes;andthen，lessvisibleandlessnumerous，thereisacorrespondingclassofwomen。
Isitnaturalthathappinessshouldbethelotofsuch？orisitnaturalthattheyshouldbringunhappinessonthemselvesandthoseconnectedwiththem？Isitnotmanifestthattheremustexistinourmidstanimmenseamountofmiserywhichisanormalresultofmisconduct，andoughtnottobedissociatedfromit？
Thereisanotion，alwaysmoreorlessprevalentandjustnowvociferouslyexpressed，thatallsocialsufferingisremovable，andthatitisthedutyofsomebodyorothertoremoveit。Boththesebeliefsarefalse。Toseparatepainfromill—doingistofightagainsttheconstitutionofthings，andwillbefollowedbyfarmorepain。Savingmenfromthenaturalpenaltiesofdissoluteliving，eventuallynecessitatestheinflictionofartificialpenaltiesinsolitarycells，ontread—wheels，andbythelash。I
supposeadictum，onwhichthecurrentcreedandthecreedofscienceareatone，maybeconsideredtohaveashighanauthorityascanbefound。Well，thecommand"ifanywouldnotworkneithershouldheeat，"issimplyaChristianenunciationofthatuniversallawofNatureunderwhichlifehasreacheditspresentheight——thelawthatacreaturenotenergeticenoughtomaintainitselfmustdie：thesoledifferencebeingthatthelawwhichintheonecaseistobeartificiallyenforced，is，intheothercase，anaturalnecessity。Andyetthisparticulartenetoftheirreligionwhichsciencesomanifestlyjustifies，istheonewhichChristiansseemleastinclinedtoaccept。Thecurrentassumptionisthatthereshouldbenosuffering，andthatsocietyistoblameforthatwhichexists。
"Butsurelywearenotwithoutresponsibilities，evenwhenthesufferingisthatoftheunworthy？"
Ifthemeaningoftheword"we"besoexpandedastoincludewithourselvesourancestors，andespeciallyourancestrallegislators，Iagree。Iadmitthatthosewhomade，andmodified，andadministered，theoldPoorLaw，wereresponsibleforproducinganappallingamountofdemoralization，whichitwilltakemorethanonegenerationtoremove。Iadmit，too，thepartialresponsibilityofrecentandpresentlaw—makersforrelationswhichhavebroughtintobeingapermanentbodyoftramps，whoramblefromuniontounion;andalsotheirresponsibilityformaintainingaconstantsupplyoffelonsbysendingbackconvictsintosocietyundersuchconditionsthattheyarealmostcompelledagaintocommitcrimes。Moreover，I
admitthatthephilanthropicarenotwithouttheirshareofresponsibility;since，thattheymayaidtheoffspringoftheunworthy，theydisadvantagetheoffspringoftheworthythroughburdeningtheirparentsbyincreasedlocalrates。Nay，Ievenadmitthattheseswarmsofgood—for—nothings，fosteredandmultipliedbypublicandprivateagencies，have，bysundrymischievousmeddlings，beenmadetosuffermorethantheywouldotherwisehavesuffered。Arethesetheresponsibilitiesmeant？I
suspectnot。
Butnow，leavingthequestionofresponsibilities，howeverconceived，andconsideringonlytheevilitself，whatshallwesayofitstreatment？Letmebeginwithafact。
Alateuncleofnine，theRevThomasSpencer，forsometwentyyearsincumbentofHintonCharterhouse，nearBath，nosoonerenteredonhisparishdutiesthanheprovedhimselfanxiousforthewelfareofthepoor，byestablishingaschool，alibrary，aclothingclubandland—allotments，besidesbuildingsomemodelcottages。Moreover，upto1833hewasapauper’sfriend——alwaysforthepauperagainsttheoverseer。Therepresentlycame，however，thedebatesonthePoorLaw，whichimpressedhimwiththeevilsofthesystemtheninforce。Thoughanardentphilanthropisthewasnotatimidsentimentalist。Theresultwasthat，immediatelythenewPoorLawwaspassed，heproceededtocarryoutitsprovisionsinhisparish。Almostuniversaloppositionwasencounteredbyhim：notthepooronlybeinghisopponents，buteventhefarmersonwhomcametheburdenofheavypoor—rates。For，strangetosay，theirinterestshadbecomeapparentlyidentifiedwiththemaintenanceofthissystemwhichtaxedthemsolargely。Theexplanationisthattherehadgrownupthepracticeofpayingoutoftheratesapartofthewagesofeachfarm—servant——"make—wages，"asthesumwascalled。Andthoughthefarmerscontributedmostofthefundfromwhich"make—wages"werepaid，yet，sinceallotherratepayerscontributed，thefarmersseemedtogainbythearrangement。Myuncle，however，noteasilydeterred，facedallthisoppositionandenforcedthelaw。Theresultwasthatintwoyearstherateswerereducedfrom*700ayearto*200ayear;whiletheconditionoftheparishwasgreatlyimproved。"Thosewhohadhithertoloiteredatthecornersofthestreets，oratthedoorsofthebeer—shops，hadsomethingelsetodo，andoneafteranothertheyobtainedemployment;"sothatoutofapopulationof800，only15
hadtobesentasincapablepauperstotheBathUnion（whenthatwasformed），inplaceofthe100whoreceivedout—doorreliefashorttimebefore。Ifitbesaidthatthe*20telescopewhich，afewyearsafter，hisparishionerspresentedtomyuncle，markedonlythegratitudeoftheratepayers;thenmyreplyisthefactthatwhen，someyearslaterstill，havingkilledhimselfbyoverworkinpursuitofpopularwelfare，hewastakentoHintontobeburied，theprocessionwhichfollowedhimtothegraveincludednotthewell—to—doonlybutthepoor。
Severalmotiveshavepromptedthisbriefnarrative。Oneisthewishtoprovethatsympathywiththepeopleandself—sacrificingeffortsontheirbehalf，donotnecessarilyimplyapprovalofgratuitousaids。Anotheristhedesiretoshowthatbenefitmayresult，notfrommultiplicationofartificialappliancestomitigatedistress，but，contrariwise，fromdiminutionofthem。AndafurtherpurposeIhaveinviewisthatofpreparingthewayforananalogy。
Underanotherformandinadifferentsphere，wearenowyearlyextendingasystemwhichisidenticalinnaturewiththesystemof"make—wages"undertheoldPoorLaw。Littleaspoliticiansrecognizethefact，itisneverthelessdemonstrablethatthesevariouspublicappliancesforworking—classcomfort，whichtheyaresupplyingatthecostofratepayers，areintrinsicallyofthesamenatureasthosewhich，inpasttimes，treatedthefarmer’smanashalf—labourerandhalf—pauper。Ineithercasetheworkerreceivesinreturnforwhathedoes，moneywherewithtobuycertainofthethingshewants;while，toprocuretherestofthemforhim，moneyisfurnishedoutofacommonfundraisedbytaxes。Whatmattersitwhetherthethingssuppliedbyratepayersfornothing，insteadofbytheemployerinpayment，areofthiskindorthatkind？Theprincipleisthesame。Forsumsreceivedletussubstitutethecommoditiesandbenefitspurchased;andthenseehowthematterstands。InoldPoor—Lawtimes，thefarmergaveforworkdonetheequivalent，sayofhouse—rent，bread，clothes，andfire;whiletheratepayerspracticallysuppliedthemanandhisfamilywiththeirshoes，tea，sugar，candles，alittlebacon，etc。Thedivisionis，ofcourse，arbitrary;butunquestionablythefarmerandtheratepayersfurnishedthesethingsbetweenthem。Atthepresenttimetheartisanreceivesfromhisemployerinwages，theequivalentoftheconsumablecommoditieshewants;whilefromthepubliccomessatisfactionforothersofhisneedsanddesires。Atthecostofratepayershehasinsomecases，andwillpresentlyhaveinmore，ahouseatlessthanitscommercialvalue;forofcoursewhen，asinLiverpool，amunicipalityspendsnearly*200，000inpullingdownandreconstructinglow—classdwellings，andisabouttospendasmuchagain，theimplicationisthatinsomewaytheratepayerssupplythepoorwithmoreaccommodationthantherentstheypaywouldotherwisehavebrought。Theartisanfurtherreceivesfromthem，inschoolingforhischildren，muchmorethanhepaysfor;andthereiseveryprobabilitythathewillpresentlyreceiveitfromthemgratis。Theratepayersalsosatisfywhatdesirehemayhaveforbooksandnewspapers，andcomfortableplacestoreadthemin。Insomecasestoo，asinManchester，gymnasiaforhischildrenofbothsexes，aswellasrecreationgrounds，areprovided。Thatistosay，heobtainsfromafundraisedbylocaltaxes，certainbenefitsbeyondthosewhichthesumreceivedforhislabourenableshimtopurchase。Thesoledifference，then，betweenthissystemandtheoldsystemof"make—wages，"isbetweenthekindsofsatisfactionsobtained;andthisdifferencedoesnotintheleastaffectthenatureofthearrangement。
Moreover，thetwoarepervadedbysubstantiallythesameillusion。Intheonecase，asintheother，whatlookslikeagratisbenefitisnotagratisbenefit。Theamountwhich，undertheoldPoorLaw，thehalf—pauperizedlabourerreceivedfromtheparishtoekeouthisweeklyincome，wasnotreally，asitappeared，abonus;foritwasaccompaniedbyasubstantially—equivalentdecreaseinhiswages，aswasquicklyprovedwhenthesystemwasabolishedandthewagesrose。Justsoisitwiththeseseemingboonsreceivedbyworkingpeopleintowns。Idonotreferonlytothefactthattheyunawarespayinpartthroughtheraisedrentsoftheirdwellings（whentheyarenotactualratepayers）;butIrefertothefactthatthewagesreceivedbythemare，likethewagesofthefarm—labourer，diminishedbythesepublicburdensfallingonemployers。ReadtheaccountscomingoflatefromLancashireconcerningthecottonstrike，containingproofs，givenbyartisansthemselves，thatthemarginofprofitissonarrowthatthelessskilfulmanufacturers，aswellasthosewithdeficientcapital，fail，andthatthecompaniesofco—operatorswhocompetewiththemcanrarelyholdtheirown;andthenconsiderwhatistheimplicationrespectingwages。Amongthecostsofproductionhavetobereckonedtaxes，generalandlocal。If，asinourlargetowns，thelocalratesnowamounttoone—thirdoftherentalormore——iftheemployerhastopaythis，notonhisprivatedwellingonly，butonhisbusiness—premises，factories，warehouses，orthelike;
itresultsthattheinterestonhiscapitalmustbediminishedbythatamount，ortheamountmustbetakenfromthewages—fund，orpartlyoneandpartlytheother。Andifcompetitionamongcapitalistsinthesamebusinessandinotherbusinesses，hastheeffectofsokeepingdowninterestthatwhilesomegainotherslose，andnotafewareruined——ifcapital，notgettingadequateinterest，flowselsewhereandleaveslabourunemployed;