Itwouldhaveseveraluses——oneofthemrelevanttothetruthabovepointedout。Suchapresentationwouldmakeclearhowthatidentityofgovernmentalethicswithmilitaryethicswhichnecessarilyexistsduringprimitivetimes，whenthearmyissimplythemobilizedsocietyandthesocietyisthequiescentarmy，continuesthroughlongstages，andevennowaffectsingreatdegreesourlaw—proceedingsandourdailylives。Having，forinstance，shownthatinnumeroussavagetribesthejudicialfunctionofthechiefdoesnotexist，orisnominal，andthatverygenerallyduringearlystagesofEuropeancivilization，eachmanhadtodefendhimselfandrectifyhisprivatewrongsasbesthemight——havingshownthatinmedievaltimestherightofprivatewaramongmembersofthemilitaryorderwasbroughttoanend，notbecausetheheadrulerthoughtithisdutytoarbitrate，butbecauseprivatewarsinterferedwiththeefficiencyofhisarmyinpublicwarshavingshownthattheadministrationofjusticedisplayedthroughsubsequentagesalargeamountofitsprimitivenature，intrialbybattlecarriedonbeforethekingorhisdeputyasumpire，andwhich，amongourselves，continuednominallytobeanalternativeformoftrialdownto1819;itmightthenbepointedoutthatevennowtheresurvivestrialbybattleunderanotherform：counselbeingthechampionsandpursestheweapons。Incivilcases，therulingagencycaresscarcelymorethanofoldaboutrectifyingthewrongsoftheinjured;but，practically，itsdeputydoeslittleelsethantoenforcetherulesofthefight：theresultbeinglessaquestionofequitythanaquestionofpecuniaryabilityandforensicskill。Nay，solittleconcernfortheadministrationofjusticeisshownbytherulingagency，thatwhen，bylegalconflictcarriedoninthepresenceofitsdeputy，thecombatantshavebeenpecuniarilybledeventotheextentofproducingprostration，andwhenanappealbeingmadebyoneofthemthedecisionisreversed，thebeatencombatantismadetopayfortheblundersofthedeputy，orofaprecedingdeputy;andnotunfrequentlythewrongedman，whosoughtprotectionorrestitution，istakenoutofcourtpecuniarilydead。
Adequatelydone，suchaportrayalofgovernmentalmisdeedsofcommissionandomission，provingthatthepartially—survivingcodeofethicsarisingin，andproperto，astateofwar，stillvitiatesgovernmentalaction，mightgreatlymoderatethehopesofthosewhoareanxioustoextendgovernmentalcontrol。Afterobservingthatalongwiththestill—manifesttraitsofthatprimitivepoliticalstructurewhichchronicmilitancyproduces，theregoesastill—manifestsurvivalofitsprimitiveprinciples;
thereformerandthephilanthropistmightbelesssanguineintheiranticipationsofgoodfromitsall—pervadingagency，andmightbemoreinclinedtotrustagenciesofanon—governmentalkind。
Butleavingoutthegreaterpartofthelargetopiccomprehendedunderthetitleofthisarticle，Iproposeheretodealonlywithacomparativelysmallremainingpart——thosesinsoflegislatorswhicharenotgeneratedbytheirpersonalambitionsorclassinterests，butresultfromalackofthestudybywhichtheyaremorallyboundtopreparethemselves。
Adruggist’sassistantwho，afterlisteningtothedescriptionofpainswhichhemistakesforthoseofcolic，butwhicharereallycausedbyinflammationofthececum，prescribesasharppurgativeandkillsthepatient，isfoundguiltyofmanslaughter。Heisnotallowedtoexcusehimselfonthegroundthathedidnotintendharmbuthopedforgood。Thepleathathesimplymadeamistakeinhisdiagnosisisnotentertained。Heistoldthathehadnorighttoriskdisastrousconsequencesbymeddlinginamatterconcerningwhichhisknowledgewassoinadequate。Thefactthathewasignoranthowgreatwashisignoranceisnotacceptedinbarofjudgment。Itistacitlyassumedthattheexperiencecommontoallshouldhavetaughthimthateventheskilled，andmuchmoretheunskilled，makemistakesintheidentificationofdisordersandintheappropriatetreatment;andthathavingdisregardedthewarningderivablefromcommonexperience，hewasanswerablefortheconsequences。
Wemeasuretheresponsibilitiesoflegislatorsformischiefstheymaydo，inamuchmorelenientfashion。Inmostcases，sofarfromthinkingofthemasdeservingpunishmentforcausingdisastersbylawsignorantlyenacted，wescarcelythinkofthemasdeservingreprobation。Itisheldthatcommonexperienceshouldhavetaughtthedruggist’sassistant，untrainedasheis，nottointerfere;butitisnotheldthatcommonexperienceshouldhavetaughtthelegislatornottointerferetil1hehastrainedhimselfThoughmultitudinousfactsarebeforehimintherecordedlegislationofourowncountryandofothercountries，whichshouldimpressonhimtheimmenseevilscausedbywrongtreatment，heisnotcondemnedfordisregardingthesewarningsagainstrashmeddling。Contrariwise，itisthoughtmeritoriousinhimwhen——perhapslatelyfromcollege，perhapsfreshfromkeepingapackofhoundswhichmadehimpopularinhiscounty，perhapsemergingfromaprovincialtownwhereheacquiredafortune，perhapsrisingfromthebaratwhichhehasgainedanameasanadvocate——heentersParliament;andforthwith，inquitealight—heartedway，beginstoaidorhinderthisorthatmeansofoperatingonthebodypolitic。Inthiscasethereisnooccasioneventomakeforhimtheexcusethathedoesnotknowhowlittleheknows;forthepublicatlargeagreeswithhiminthinkingitneedlessthatheshouldknowanythingmorethanwhatthedebatesontheproposedmeasurestellhim。
Andyetthemischiefswroughtbyuninstructedlaw—making，enormousintheiramountascomparedwiththosecausedbyuninstructedmedicaltreatment，areconspicuoustoallwhodobutglanceoveritshistory。ThereadermustpardonmewhileIrecallafewfamiliarinstances。Centuryaftercentury，statesmenwentonenactingusurylawswhichmadeworsetheconditionofthedebtor——raisingtherateofinterest"fromfivetosixwhenintendingtoreduceittofour，"（5*）asunderLouisXVandindirectlyproducingundreamtofevilsofmanykinds，suchaspreventingthereproductiveuseofsparecapital，and"burdeningthesmallproprietorswithamultitudeofperpetualservices。"（6*）So，too，theendeavourswhichinEnglandcontinuedthroughfivehundredyearstostopforestalling，andwhichinFrance，asArthurYoungwitnessed，preventedanyonefrombuying"morethantwobushelsofwheatatmarket，"（7*）wentongenerationaftergenerationincreasingthemiseriesandmortalityduetodearth;for，aseverybodynowknows，thewholesaledealer，whowasinthestatute"DePistoribus"vituperatedas"anopenoppressorofpoorpeople，"（8*）issimplyonewhosefunctionitistoequalizethesupplyofacommoditybycheckingundulyrapidconsumption。Ofkindrednaturewasthemeasurewhich，in1315，todiminishthepressureoffamine，prescribedthepricesoffoods，butwhichwashastilyrepealedafterithadcausedentiredisappearanceofvariousfoodsfromthemarkets;andalsosuchmeasures，morecontinuouslyoperating，asthosewhichsettledbymagisterialorder"thereasonablegains"ofvictuallers。（9*）Oflikespiritandfollowedbyalliedmischiefshavebeenthemanyendeavourstofixwages，whichbeganwiththeStatuteofLabourersunderEdwardIII，andceasedonlysixtyyearsago;
when，havinglonggalvanizedinSpitalfieldsadecayingindustry，andfosteredthereamiserablepopulation，LordsandCommonsfinallygaveupfixingsilk—weavers’earningsbythedecisionsofmagistrates。HereIimagineanimpatientinterruption。"Weknowallthat;thestoryisstale。Themischiefsofinterferingwithtradehavebeendinnedinourearstillweareweary;andnooneneedstobetaughtthelessonafresh。"Myfirstreplyisthatbythegreatmajoritythelessonwasneverproperlylearntatall，andthatmanyofthosewhodidlearnithaveforgottenit。Forjustthesamepleaswhichofoldwereputinforthesedictations，areagainputin。Inthestatute35ofEdwardIII，whichaimedtokeepdownthepriceofherrings（butwassoonrepealedbecauseitraisedtheprice），itwascomplainedthatpeople"comingtothefair……dobargainforherring，andeveryofthem，bymaliceandenvy，increaseuponother，and，ifoneprofferfortyshillings，anotherwillproffertenshillingsmore，andthethirdsixtyshillings，andsoeveryonesurmountethotherinthebargain。"（10*）Andnowthe"higglingofthemarket，"herecondemnedandascribedto"maliceandenvy，"isbeingagaincondemned。TheevilsofcompetitionhaveallalongbeenthestockcryoftheSocialists;andthecounciloftheDemocraticFederationdenouncesthecarryingonofexchangeunder"thecontrolofindividualgreedandprofit。"Mysecondreplyisthatinterferenceswiththelawofsupplyanddemand，whichagenerationagowereadmittedtobehabituallymischievous，arenowbeingdailymadebyActsofParliamentinnewfields;andthat，asIshallpresentlyshow，theyareinthesefieldsincreasingtheevilstobecuredandproducingfreshones，asofoldtheydidinfieldsnolongerintrudedupon。
Returningfromthisparenthesis，IgoontoexplainthattheaboveActsarenamedtoremindthereaderthatuninstructedlegislatorshaveinpasttimescontinuallyincreasedhumansufferingintheirendeavourstomitigateit;andIhavenowtoaddthatiftheseevils，showntobelegislativelyintensifiedorproduced，bemultipliedbytenormore，aconceptionwillbeformedoftheaggregateevilscausedbylaw—makingunguidedbysocialscience。InapaperreadtotheStatisticalSocietyinMay，1873，MrJanson，vice—presidentoftheLawSociety，statedthatfromtheStatuteofMerton（20HenryIII）totheendof1872，therehadbeenpassed18，110publicActs;ofwhichheestimatedthatfour—fifthshadbeenwhollyorpartiallyrepealed。
HealsostatedthatthenumberofpublicActsrepealedwhollyorinpart，oramended，duringthethreeyears1870—71—72hadbeen3，532，ofwhich2，759hadbeentotallyrepealed。Toseewhetherthisrateofrepealhascontinued，Ihavereferredtotheannually—issuedvolumesof"ThePublicGeneralStatutes"forthelastthreesessions。SayingnothingofthenumerousamendedActs，theresultisthatinthelastthreesessionstherehavebeentotallyrepealed，separatelyoringroups，650Acts，belongingtothepresentreign，besidesmanyofprecedingreigns。This，ofcourse，isgreatlyabovetheaveragerate;fortherehasoflatebeenanactivepurgationofthestatute—book。Butmakingeveryallowance，wemustinferthatwithinourowntimes，repealshavemountedsomedistanceintothethousands。Doubtlessanumberofthemhavebeenoflawsthatwereobsolete;othershavebeendemandedbychangesofcircumstances（thoughseeinghowmanyofthemareofquiterecentActs，thishasnotbeenalargecause）;
otherssimplybecausetheywereinoperative;andothershavebeenconsequentontheconsolidationsofnumerousActsintosingleActs。Butunquestionablyinmultitudinouscases，repealscamebecausetheActshadprovedinjurious。Wetalkgliblyofsuchchanges——wethinkofcancelledlegislationwithindifference。
Weforgetthatbeforelawsareabolishedtheyhavegenerallybeeninflictingevilsmoreorlessserious;someforafewyears，somefortensofyears，someforcenturies。Changeyourvagueideaofabadlawintoadefiniteideaofitasanagencyoperatingonpeople’slives，andyouseethatitmeanssomuchofpain，somuchofillness，somuchofmortality。Aviciousformoflegalprocedure，forexample，eitherenactedortolerated，entailsonsuitors，costs，ordelays，ordefeats。Whatdotheseimply？Lossofmoney，oftenill—spared;greatandprolongedanxiety;
frequentlyconsequentillness;unhappinessoffamilyanddependents;childrenstintedinfoodandclothing——allofthemmiserieswhichbringafterthemmultipliedremotermiseries。Addtowhichtherearethefarmorenumerouscasesofthosewho，lackingthemeansorthecouragetoenteronlaw—suits，andthereforesubmittingtofrauds，areimpoverished;andhavesimilarlytobearthepainsofbodyandmindwhichensue。Eventosaythatalawhasbeensimplyahindrance，istosaythatithascausedneedlesslossoftime，extratrouble，andadditionalworry;andamongover—burdenedpeopleextratroubleandworryimply，hereandthere，break—downsinhealthwiththeirentaileddirectandindirectsufferings。Seeing，then，thatbadlegislationmeansinjurytomen’slives，judgewhatmustbethetotalamountofmentaldistress，physicalpain，andraisedmortality，whichthesethousandsofrepealedActsofParliamentrepresent！Fullytobringhomethetruththatlaw—makingunguidedbyadequateknowledgebringsimmenseevils，letmetakeaspecialcasewhichaquestionofthedayrecalls。
AlreadyIhavehintedthatinterferenceswiththeconnexionbetweensupplyanddemand，givenupincertainfieldsafterimmensemischiefshadbeendoneduringmanycenturies，arenowtakingplaceinotherfields。Thisconnexionissupposedtoholdonlywhereithasbeenprovedtoholdbytheevilsofdisregardingit：sofeebleismen’sbeliefinit。Thereseemsnosuspicionthatincaseswhereitseemstofail，naturalcausationhasbeentraversedbyartificialhindrances。AndyetinthecasetowhichInowrefer——thatofthesupplyofhousesforthepoor——itneedsbuttoaskwhatlawshavebeendoingforalongtimepast，toseethattheterribleevilscomplainedofaremostlylaw—made。
Agenerationagodiscussionwastakingplaceconcerningtheinadequacyandbadnessofindustrialdwellings，andIhadoccasiontodealwiththequestion。Hereisapassagethenwritten：——
"Anarchitectandsurveyordescribesit[theBuildingAct]ashavingworkedafterthefollowingmanner。InthosedistrictsofLondonconsistingofinferiorhousesbuiltinthatunsubstantialfashionwhichtheNewBuildingActwastomend，thereobtainsanaveragerent，sufficientlyremunerativetolandlordswhosehouseswererunupeconomicallybeforetheNewBuildingActwaspassed。
Thisexistingaveragerentfixestherentthatmustbechargedinthesedistrictsfornewhousesofthesameaccommodation——thatisthesamenumberofrooms，forthepeopletheyarebuiltfordonotappreciatetheextrasafetyoflivingwithinwallsstrengthenedwithhoop—ironbond。Nowitturnsoutupontrial，thathousesbuiltinaccordancewiththepresentregulations，andletatthisestablishedrate，bringinnothinglikeareasonablereturn。Buildershaveconsequentlyconfinedthemselvestoerectinghousesinbetterdistricts（wherethepossibilityofaprofitablecompetitionwithpre—existinghousesshowsthatthosepre—existinghousesweretolerablysubstantial），andhaveceasedtoerectdwellingsforthemasses，exceptinthesuburbswherenopressingsanitaryevilsexist。Meanwhile，intheinferiordistrictsabovedescribed，hasresultedanincreaseofovercrowding——half—a—dozenfamiliesinahouse，ascoreoflodgerstoaroom。Nay，morethanthishasresulted。Thatstateofmiserabledilapidationintowhichtheseabodesofthepoorareallowedtofall，isduetotheabsenceofcompetitionfromnewhouses。Landlordsdonotfindtheirtenantstemptedawaybytheofferofbetteraccommodation。Repairs，beingunnecessaryforsecuringthelargestamountofprofit，arenotmade……Infactforalargepercentageoftheveryhorrorswhichoursanitaryagitatorsaretryingtocurebylaw，wehavetothankpreviousagitatorsofthesameschool！"
SocialStatics，p。384（editionof1851）
Thesewerenottheonlylaw—madecausesofsuchevils。Asshowninthefollowingfurtherpassage，sundryotherswererecognized：——
"Writingbeforetherepealofthebrick—duty，theBuildersays：——’Itissupposedthatone—fourthofthecostofadwellingwhichletsfor2s。6d。or3s。aweekiscausedbytheexpenseofthetitle—deedsandthetaxonwoodandbricksusedinitsconstruction。Ofcourse，theownerofsuchpropertymustberemunerated，andhethereforecharges71/2d。or9d。aweektocovertheseburdens。’MrC。Gatliff，secretarytotheSocietyforImprovingtheDwellingsoftheWorkingClasses，describingtheeffectofthewindow—tax，says：——’TheyarenowpayingupontheirinstitutioninSt。Pancrasthesumof*16216s。inwindow—duties，or1percent。perannumupontheoriginaloutlay。
TheaveragerentalpaidbytheSociety’stenantsis5s。6d。perweek，andthewindow—dutydeductsfromthis71/4d。perweek。’"
Times，January31，1850。
SocialStatics，p。385（editionof1851）。
Neitheristhisalltheevidencewhichthepressofthosedaysafforded。TherewaspublishedintheTimesofDecember7，1850（toolatetobeusedintheabove—namedwork，whichIissuedinthelastweekof1850），aletterdatedfromtheReformClub，andsigned"Architect，"whichcontainedthefollowingpassages：
——
"LordKinnairdrecommendsinyourpaperofyesterdaytheconstructionofmodellodging—housesbythrowingtwoorthreehousesintoone。
"AllowmetosuggesttohisLordship，andtohisfriendLordAshleytowhomherefers，thatif，——
1。Thewindow—taxwererepealed，2。ThebuildingActrepealed（exceptingtheclausesenactingthatpartyandeternalwallsshallbefireproof），3。Thetimberdutieseitherequalizedorrepealed，and，4。AnActpassedtofacilitatethetransferofproperty，"Therewouldbenomorenecessityformodellodging—housesthanthereisformodelships，modelcotton—mills，ormodelsteam—engines。
"Thefirstlimitsthepoorman’shousetosevenwindows，"Thesecondlimitsthesizeofthepoorman’shouseto25
feetby18（aboutthesizeofagentleman’sdining—room），intowhichspacethebuilderhastocramastaircase，anentrance—passage，aparlour，andakitchen（wallsandpartitionsincluded）。
"Thethirdinducesthebuildertoerectthepoorman’shouseoftimberunfitforbuildingpurposes，thedutyonthegoodmaterial（Baltic）beingfifteentimesmorethanthedutyonthebadorinjuriousarticle（Canadian）。TheGovernment，even，excludethelatterfromalltheircontractors。
"Thefourthwouldhaveconsiderableinfluenceuponthepresentmiserablestateofthedwellingsofthepoor。Smallfreeholdsmightthenbetransferredaseasilyasleaseholds。Theeffectofbuildingleaseshasbeenadirectinducementtobadbuilding。"
Toguardagainstmis—statementorover—statement，IhavetakentheprecautiontoconsultalargeEast—endbuilderandcontractoroffortyyears’experience，MrC。Forrest，MuseumWorks，17，VictoriaParkSquare，BethnalGreen，who，beingchurchwarden，memberofthevestry，andoftheboardofguardians，addsextensiveknowledgeoflocalpublicaffairstohisextensiveknowledgeofthebuildingbusiness。MrForrest，whoauthorizesmetogivehisname，verifiestheforegoingstatementswiththeexceptionofonewhichhestrengthens。Hesaysthat"Architect"understatestheevilentailedbythedefinitionofa"fourth—ratehouse;"sincethedimensionsaremuchlessthanthosehegivesperhapsinconformitywiththeprovisionsofamorerecentBuildingAct）。MrForresthasdonemorethanthis。
Besidesillustratingthebadeffectsofgreatincreaseinground—rents（insixtyyearsfrom*1to*810s。forafourth—ratehouse）which，joinedwithothercauses，hadobligedhimtoabandonplansforindustrialdwellingshehadintendedtobuild——besidesagreeingwith"Architect"thatthisevilhasbeengreatlyincreasedbythedifficultiesofland—transferduetothelaw—establishedsystemoftrustsandentails;hepointedoutthatafurtherpenaltyonthebuildingofsmallhousesisinflictedbyadditionstolocalburdens（"prohibitoryimposts"hecalledthem）：oneoftheinstanceshenamedbeingthattothecostofeachnewhousehastobeaddedthecostofpavement，roadwayandsewerage，whichischargedaccordingtolengthoffrontage，andwhich，consequently，bearsafarlargerratiotothevalueofasmallhousethantothevalueofalargeone。
Fromtheselaw—producedmischiefs，whichweregreatagenerationagoandhavesincebeenincreasing，letuspasstomorerecentlaw—producedmischiefs。Themisery，thedisease，themortalityin"rookeries，"madecontinuallyworsebyartificialimpedimentstotheincreaseoffourth—ratehouses，andbythenecessitatedgreatercrowdingofthosewhichexisted，havingbecomeascandal，Governmentwasinvokedtoremovetheevil。ItrespondedbyArtisans’DwellingsActs;givingtolocalauthoritiespowerstopulldownbadhousesandprovideforthebuildingofgoodones。Whathavebeentheresults？AsummaryoftheoperationsoftheMetropolitanBoardofWorks，datedDecember21，1883，showsthatuptolastSeptemberithad，atacostofamillionandaquartertoratepayers，unhoused21，000personsandprovidedhousesfor12，000——theremaining9，000tobehereafterprovidedfor，being，meanwhile，lefthouseless。Thisisnotall。
AnotherlocallieutenantoftheGovernment，theCommissionofSewersfortheCity，workingonthesamelines，has，underlegislativecompulsion，pulleddowninGoldenLaneandPetticoatSquare，massesofcondemnedsmallhouses，which，together，accommodated1，734poorpeople;andofthespacesthusclearedfiveyearsago，onehas，byState—authority，beensoldforarailwaystation，andtheotherisonlynowbeingcoveredwithindustrialdwellingswhichwilleventuallyaccommodateone—halfoftheexpelledpopulation：theresultuptothepresenttimebeingthat，addedtothosedisplacedbytheMetropolitanBoardofWorks，these1，734displacedfiveyearsago，formatotalofnearly11，000artificiallymadehomeless，whohavehadtofindcornersforthemselvesinmiserableplacesthatwerealreadyoverflowing！
Seethenwhatlegislationhasdone。Byill—imposedtaxes，raisingthepricesofbricksandtimber，itaddedtothecostsofhouses;andprompted，foreconomy’ssake，theuseofbadmaterialsinscantyquantities。Tochecktheconsequentproductionofwretcheddwellings，itestablishedregulationswhich，inmedievalfashion，dictatedthequalityofthecommodityproduced：therebeingnoperceptionthatbyinsistingonahigherqualityandthereforehigherprice，itwouldlimitthedemandandeventuallydiminishthesupply。Byadditionallocalburdens，legislationhasoflatestillfurtherhinderedthebuildingofsmallhouses。Finally，having，bysuccessivemeasures，producedfirstbadhousesandthenadeficiencyofbetterones，ithasatlengthprovidedfortheartificially—increasedoverflowofpoorpeoplebydiminishingthehouse—capacitywhichalreadycouldnotcontainthem！
WherethenliestheblameforthemiseriesoftheEast—end？
Againstwhomshouldberaised"thebittercryofoutcastLondon？"
TheGermananthropologistBastian，tellsusthatasicknativeofGuineawhocausesthefetishtoliebynotrecovering，isstrangled;（11*）andwemayreasonablysupposethatamongtheGuineapeople，anyoneaudaciousenoughtocallinquestionthepowerofthefetishwouldbepromptlysacrificed。Indayswhengovernmentalauthoritywasenforcedbystrongmeasures，therewasakindreddangerinsayinganythingdisrespectfulofthepoliticalfetish。Nowadays，however，theworstpunishmenttobelookedforbyonewhoquestionsitsomnipotence，isthathewillbereviledasareactionarywhotalkslaissez—faire。Thatanyfactshemaybringforwardwillappreciablydecreasetheestablishedfaithisnottobeexpected;forwearedailyshownthatthisfaithisproofagainstalladverseevidence。Letuscontemplateasmallpartofthatvastmassofitwhichpassesunheeded。
"AGovernment—officeislikeaninvertedfilter：yousendinaccountsclearandtheycomeoutmuddy。"SuchwasthecomparisonIheardmademanyyearsagobythelateSirCharlesFox，who，intheconductofhisbusiness，hadconsiderableexperienceofpublicdepartments。Thathisopinionwasnotasingularone，thoughhiscomparisonwas，allmenknow。ExposuresbythepressandcriticismsinParliament，leavenooneinignoranceofthevicesofred—taperoutine。Itsdelays，perpetuallycomplainedof，andwhichinthetimeofMrFoxMaulewenttotheextentthat"thecommissionsofofficersinthearmy"weregenerally"abouttwoyearsinarrear，"isafreshillustratedbytheissueofthefirstvolumeofthedetailedcensusof1881，morethantwoyearsaftertheinformationwascollected。Ifweseekexplanationsofsuchdelays，wefindoneorigintobeascarcelycredibleconfusion。Inthecaseofthecensusreturns，theRegistrar—Generaltellsusthat"thedifficultyconsistsnotmerelyinthevastmultitudeofdifferentareasthathavetobetakenintoaccount，butstillmoreinthebewilderingcomplexityoftheirboundaries："therebeing39，000administrativeareasoftwenty—twodifferentkindswhichoverlaponeanother——hundreds，parishes，boroughs，wards，pettysessionaldivisions，lieutenancydivisions，urbanandruralsanitarydistricts，dioceses，registrationdistricts，etc。Andthen，asMrRathbone，M。P。，pointsout，（12*）thesemanysuperposedsetsofareaswithintersectingboundaries，havetheirrespectivegoverningbodieswithauthoritiesrunningintooneanother’sdistricts。DoesanyoneaskwhyforeachadditionaladministrationParliamenthasestablishedafreshsetofdivisions？Thereplywhichsuggestsitselfis——Topreserveconsistencyofmethod。ForthisorganizedconfusioncorrespondscompletelywiththatorganizedconfusionwhichParliamenteachyearincreasesbythrowingontotheheapofitsoldActsahundrednewActs，theprovisionsofwhichtraverseandqualifyinallkindsofwaystheprovisionsofmultitudinousActsontowhichtheyarethrown：theonusofsettlingwhatisthelawbeinglefttoprivatepersons，wholosetheirpropertyingettingjudges’interpretations。Andagain，thissystemofputtingnetworksofdistrictsoverothernetworks，withtheirconflictingauthorities，isquiteconsistentwiththemethodunderwhichthereaderofthePublicHealthActof1872，whowishestoknowwhatarethepowersexercisedoverhim，isreferredto26precedingActsofseveralclassesandnumerousdates。（13*）So，too，withadministrativeinertia。Continuallythereoccurcasesshowingtheresistanceofofficialismtoimprovements;asbytheAdmiraltywhenuseoftheelectrictelegraphwasproposed，andthereplywas——"Wehaveaverygoodsemaphoresystem;"orasbythePostOffice，whichthelateSirCharlesSiemensyearsagosaidhadobstructedtheemploymentofimprovedmethodsoftelegraphing，andwhichsincethenhasimpededtheuseofthetelephone。Othercasesakintothecaseofindustrialdwellings，nowandthenshowhowtheStatewithonehandincreasesevilswhichwiththeotherhandittriestodiminish;aswhenitputsadutyonfire—insurancesandthenmakesregulationsforthebetterputtingoutoffires：dictating，too，certainmodesofconstruction，which，asCaptainShawshows，entailadditionaldangers。（14*）Again，theabsurditiesofofficialroutine，rigidwhereitneednotbeandlaxwhereitshouldberigid，occasionallybecomeglaringenoughtocausescandals;aswhenasecretState—documentofimportance，putintothehandsofanill—paidcopyingclerkwhowasnoteveninpermanentGovernmentemploy，wasmadepublicbyhim;oraswhenthemodeofmakingtheMoorsomfuse，whichwaskeptsecretevenfromourhighestartilleryofficers，wastaughttothembytheRussians，whohadbeenallowedtolearnit;oraswhenadiagramshowingthe"distancesatwhichBritishandforeigniron—cladscouldbeperforatedbyourlargeguns，"communicatedbyanenterprisingattachetohisownGovernment，thenbecameknown"toalltheGovernmentsofEurope，"whileEnglishofficersremainedignorantofthefacts。（15*）So，too，withState—supervision。
Guaranteeingofqualitybyinspectionhasbeenshown，inthehall—markingofsilver，tobesuperfluous，whilethesilvertradehasbeendecreasedbyit;（16*）andinothercasesithasloweredthequalitybyestablishingastandardwhichitisuselesstoexceed：instancethecaseoftheCorkbutter—market，wherethehigherkindsaredisadvantagedinnotadequatelyprofitingbytheirbetterrepute;（17*）or，instancethecaseofherring—branding（nowoptional）theeffectofwhichistoputthemanyinferiorcurerswhojustreachthelevelofofficialapproval，onaparwiththefewbetteroneswhoriseaboveit，andsotodiscouragethese。Butsuchlessonspassunlearned。Evenwherethefailureofinspectionismostglaring，nonoticeistakenofit;asinstancetheterriblecatastrophebywhichatrainfullofpeoplewasdestroyedalongwiththeTaybridge。
Countlessdenunciations，loudandunsparing，wereventedagainstengineerandcontractor;butlittle，ifanything，wassaidabouttheGovernmentofficerfromwhomthebridgereceivedState—approval。So，too，withpreventionofdisease。ItmattersnotthatunderthemanagementordictationofState—agentssomeoftheworstevilsoccur;aswhenthelivesof87wivesandchildrenofsoldiersaresacrificedintheshipAccrington，（18*）
oraswhentyphoidfeveranddiphtheriaarediffusedbyaState—ordereddrainagesystem，asinEdinburgh;（19*）oraswhenofficially—enforcedsanitaryappliances，evergettingoutoforder，increasetheevilstheyweretodecrease。（20*）Massesofsuchevidenceleaveunabatedtheconfidencewithwhichsanitaryinspectionisinvoked——invoked，indeed，morethanever;asisshownintherecentsuggestionthatallpublicschoolsshouldbeunderthesupervisionofhealth—officers。Nay，evenwhentheStatehasmanifestlycausedthemischiefcomplainedof，faithinitsbeneficentagencyisnotatalldiminished;asweseeinthefactthat，havingagenerationagoauthorized，orratherrequired，townstoestablishdrainagesystemswhichdeliveredsewageintotherivers，andhavingthuspollutedthesourcesofwater—supply，anoutcrywasraisedagainstthewater—companiesfortheimpuritiesoftheirwater——anoutcrywhichcontinuedafterthesetownshadbeencompelled，atvastextracost，torevolutionizetheirdrainagesystems。Andnow，astheonlyremedy，therefollowsthedemandthattheState，byitslocalproxies，shallundertakethewholebusiness。TheState’smisdoingsbecome，asinthecaseofindustrialdwellings，reasonsforprayingittodomore。
Thisworshipofthelegislatureis，inonerespect，indeed，lessexcusablethanthefetish—worshiptowhichIhavetacitlycomparedit。Thesavagehasthedefencethathisfetishissilent——doesnotconfessitsinability。Butthecivilizedmanpersistsinascribingtothisidolmadewithhisownhands，powerswhichinonewayorotheritconfessesithasnotgot。Idonotmeanmerelythatthedebatesdailytellusoflegislativemeasureswhichhavedoneevilinsteadofgood;nordoImeanmerelythatthethousandsofActsofParliamentwhichrepealprecedingActs，aresomanytacitadmissionsoffailure。NeitherdoIreferonlytosuchquasi—governmentalconfessionsasthatcontainedinthereportofthePoorLawCommissioners，whosaidthat——"Wefind，ontheonehand，thatthereisscarcelyonestatuteconnectedwiththeadministrationofpublicreliefwhichhasproducedtheeffectdesignedbythelegislature，andthatthemajorityofthemhavecreatednewevils，andaggravatedthosewhichtheywereintendedtoprevent。"（21*）Ireferrathertoconfessionsmadebystatesmen，andbyState—departments。Here，forexample，inamemorialaddressedtoMrGladstone，andadoptedbyahighlyinfluentialmeetingheldunderthechairmanshipofthelateLordLyttelton，Iread：——
"We，theundersigned，Peers，MembersoftheHouseofCommons，Ratepayers，andInhabitantsoftheMetropolis，feelingstronglythetruthandforceofyourstatementmadeintheHouseofCommons，in1866，that，’thereisstillalamentableanddeplorablestateofourwholearrangements，withregardtopublicworks——vacillation，uncertainty，costliness，extravagance，meanness，andalltheconflictingvicesthatcouldbeenumerated，areunitedinourpresentsystem，’"etc。，etc。（22*）
Here，again，isanexamplefurnishedbyarecentminuteoftheBoardofTrade（November，1883），inwhichitissaidthatsince"theShipwreckCommitteeof1836scarcelyasessionhaspassedwithoutsomeActbeingpassedorsomestepbeingtakenbythelegislatureortheGovernmentwiththisobject"[preventionofship—wrecks];andthat"themultiplicityofstatutes，whichwereallconsolidatedintooneActin1854，hasagainbecomeascandalandareproach："eachmeasurebeingpassedbecausepreviousoneshadfailed。Andthencomespresentlytheconfessionthat"thelossoflifeandofshipshasbeengreatersince1876thaniteverwasbefore。"Meanwhile，thecostofadministrationhasbeenraisedfrom*17，000ayearto*73，000ayear。（23*）
Itissurprisinghow，spiteofbetterknowledge，theimaginationisexcitedbyartificialappliancesusedinparticularways。Weseeitallthroughhumanhistory，fromthewar—paintwithwhichthesavagefrightenshisadversary，downthroughreligiousceremoniesandregalprocessions，totherobesofaSpeakerandthewandofanofficiallydressedusher。I
rememberachildwho，abletolookwithtolerablecomposureonahorriblecadaverousmaskwhileitwasheldinthehand，ranawayshriekingwhenhisfatherputiton。Akindredchangeoffeelingcomesoverconstituencieswhen，fromboroughsandcounties，theirmemberspasstotheLegislativeChamber。Whilebeforethemascandidates，theyare，byoneorotherparty，jeeredat，lampooned，"heckled，"andinallwaystreatedwithutterdisrespect。ButassoonastheyassembleatWestminster，thoseagainstwhomtauntsandinvectives，chargesofincompetenceandfolly，hadbeenshoweredfrompressandplatform，exciteunlimitedfaith。Judgingfromtheprayersmadetothem，thereisnothingwhichtheirwisdomandtheirpowercannotcompass。
Thereplytoallthiswilldoubtlessbethatnothingbetterthanguidanceby"collectivewisdom"canbehad——thattheselectmenofthenation，ledbyare—selectedfew，bringtheirbestpowers，enlightenedbyalltheknowledgeofthetime，tobearonthemattersbeforethem。"Whatmorewouldyouhave？"willbethequestionaskedbymost。
Myansweristhatthisbestknowledgeofthetimewithwhichlegislatorsaresaidtocomepreparedfortheirduties，isaknowledgeofwhichthegreaterpartisobviouslyirrelevant，andthattheyareblameworthyfornotseeingwhatistherelevantknowledge。Noamountofthelinguisticacquirementsbywhichmanyofthemaredistinguishedwillhelptheirjudgmentsintheleast;
norwilltheybeappreciablyhelpedbytheliteraturestheseacquirementsopentothem。Politicalexperiencesandspeculationscomingfromsmallancientsocieties，throughphilosopherswhoassumethatwaristhenormalstate，thatslaveryisalikeneedfulandjust，andthatwomenmustremaininperpetualtutelage，canyieldthembutsmallaidinjudginghowActsofParliamentwillworkingreatnationsofmoderntypes。Theymayponderonthedoingsofallthegreatmenbywhom，accordingtotheCarlyleantheory，societyisframed，andtheymayspendyearsoverthoseaccountsofinternationalconflicts，andtreacheries，andintrigues，andtreaties，whichfillhistoricalworks，withoutbeingmuchnearerunderstandingthehowandthewhyofsocialstructuresandactions，andthewaysinwhichlawsaffectthem。
Nordoessuchinformationasispickedupatthefactory，on’Change，orinthejusticeroom，gofartowardstherequiredpreparation。
Thatwhichisreallyneededisasystematicstudyofnaturalcausationasdisplayedamonghumanbeingssociallyaggregated。
Thoughadistinctconsciousnessofcausationisthelasttraitwhichintellectualprogressbrings——thoughwiththesavageasimplemechanicalcauseisnotconceivedassuch——thoughevenamongtheGreekstheflightofaspearwasthoughtofasguidedbyagod——thoughfromtheirtimesdownalmosttoourown，epidemicshavebeenhabituallyregardedasofsupernaturalorigin——andthoughamongsocialphenomena，themostcomplexofall，causalrelationsmaybeexpectedtocontinuelongestunrecognized;yetinourdays，theexistenceofsuchcausalrelationshasbecomeclearenoughtoforceonallwhothink，theinferencethatbeforemeddlingwiththemtheyshouldbediligentlystudied。Themerefacts，nowfamiliar，thatthereisaconnexionbetweenthenumbersofbirths，deaths，andmarriages，andthepriceofcorn，andthatinthesamesocietyduringthesamegeneration，theratioofcrimetopopulationvarieswithinnarrowlimits，shouldbesufficienttomakeallseethathumandesires，usingasguidesuchintellectasisjoinedwiththem，actwithapproximateuniformity。Itshouldbeinferredthatamongsocialcauses，thoseinitiatedbylegislation，similarlyoperatingwithanaverageregularity，mustnotonlychangemen’sactions，but，byconsequence，changetheirnaturesprobablyinwaysnotintended。Thereshouldberecognitionofthefactthatsocialcausation，morethanallothercausation，isafructifyingcausation;anditshouldbeseenthatindirectandremoteeffectsarenolessinevitablethanproximateeffects。Idonotmeanthatthereisdenialofthesestatementsandinferences。Buttherearebeliefsandbeliefs——somewhichareheldnominally，somewhichinfluenceconductinsmalldegrees，somewhichswayitirresistiblyunderallcircumstances;andunhappilythebeliefsoflawmakersrespectingcausationinsocialaffairs，areofthesuperficialsort。Letuslookatsomeofthetruthswhichalltacitlyadmit，butwhichscarcelyanytakedeliberateaccountofinlegislation。
Thereistheindisputablefactthateachhumanbeingisinacertaindegreemodifiablebothphysicallyandmentally。Everytheoryofeducation，everydiscipline，fromthatofthearithmeticiantothatoftheprize—fighter，everyproposedrewardforvirtueorpunishmentforvice，impliesthebelief，embodiedinsundryproverbs，thattheuseordisuseofeachfaculty，bodilyormental，isfollowedbyanadaptivechangeinit——lossofpowerorgainofpower，accordingtodemand。
Thereisthefact，alsoinitsbroadermanifestationsuniversallyrecognized，thatmodificationsofNatureinonewayorotherproduced，areinheritable。Noonedeniesthatbytheaccumulationofsmallchanges，generationaftergeneration，constitutionfitsitselftoconditions;sothataclimatewhichisfataltootherracesisinnocuoustotheadaptedrace。Noonedeniesthatpeopleswhobelongtothesameoriginalstockbuthavespreadintodifferenthabitatswheretheyhaveleddifferentlives，haveacquiredincourseoftimedifferentaptitudesanddifferenttendencies。Noonedeniesthatundernewconditionsnewnationalcharactersareevennowbeingmoulded;aswitnesstheAmericans。Andifnoonedeniesaprocessofadaptationeverywhereandalwaysgoingon，itisamanifestimplicationthatadaptivemodificationsmustbesetupbyeverychangeofsocialconditions。
Towhichtherecomestheundeniablecorollarythateverylawwhichservestoaltermen’smodesofaction——compelling，orrestraining，oraiding，innewways——soaffectsthemastocauseincourseoftimeadjustmentsoftheirnatures。Beyondanymediateeffectwrought，thereistheremoteeffect，whollyignoredbymostare—mouldingoftheaveragecharacter：are—mouldingwhichmaybeofadesirablekindorofanundesirablekind，butwhichinanycaseisthemostimportantoftheresultstobeconsidered。
Othergeneraltruthswhichthecitizen，andstillmorethelegislator，oughttocontemplateuntiltheybecomewroughtintohisintellectualfabric，aredisclosedwhenweaskhowsocialactivitiesareproduced;andwhenwerecognizetheobviousanswerthattheyaretheaggregateresultsofthedesiresofindividualswhoareseverallyseekingsatisfactions，andordinarilypursuingthewayswhich，withtheirpre—existinghabitsandthoughts，seemtheeasiest——followingthelinesofleastresistance：thetruthsofpoliticaleconomybeingsomanysequences。Itneedsnoprovingthatsocialstructuresandsocialactionsmustinsomewayorotherbetheoutcomeofhumanemotionsguidedbyideas——
eitherthoseofancestorsorthoseoflivingmen。Andthattherightinterpretationofsocialphenomenaistobefoundintheco—operationofthesefactorsfromgenerationtogeneration，followsinevitably。
Suchaninterpretationsoonbringsustotheinferencethatoftheaggregateresultsofmen’sdesiresseekingtheirgratifications，thosewhichhavepromptedtheirprivateactivitiesandtheirspontaneousco—operations，havedonemuchmoretowardssocialdevelopmentthanthosewhichhaveworkedthroughgovernmentalagencies。Thatabundantcropsnowgrowwhereonceonlywildberriescouldbegathered，isduetothepursuitofindividualsatisfactionsthroughmanycenturies。Theprogressfromwigwamstogoodhouseshasresultedfromwishestoincreasepersonalwelfare;andtownshavearisenunderthelikepromptings。Beginningwithtrafficatgatheringsonoccasionsofreligiousfestivals，thetradingorganization，nowsoextensiveandcomplex，hasbeenproducedentirelybymen’seffortstoachievetheirprivateends。PerpetuallyGovernmentshavethwartedandderangedthegrowth，buthaveinnowayfurtheredit;savebypartiallydischargingtheirproperfunctionandmaintainingsocialorder。So，too，withthoseadvancesofknowledgeandthoseimprovementsofappliances，bywhichthesestructuralchangesandtheseincreasingactivitieshavebeenmadepossible。ItisnottotheStatethatweowethemultitudinoususefulinventionsfromthespadetothetelephone;itwasnottheStatewhichmadepossibleextendednavigationbyadevelopedastronomy;itwasnottheStatewhichmadethediscoveriesinphysics，chemistry，andtherest，whichguidemodernmanufacturers;itwasnottheStatewhichdevisedthemachineryforproducingfabricsofeverykind，fortransferringmenandthingsfromplacetoplace，andforministeringinathousandwaystoourcomforts。Theworld—widetransactionsconductedinmerchants’offices，therushoftrafficfillingourstreets，theretaildistributingsystemwhichbringseverythingwithineasyreachanddeliversthenecessariesoflifedailyatourdoors，arenotofgovernmentalorigin。Alltheseareresultsofthespontaneousactivitiesofcitizens，separateorgrouped。Nay，tothesespontaneousactivitiesGovernmentsowetheverymeansofperformingtheirduties。DivestthepoliticalmachineryofallthoseaidswhichScienceandArthaveyieldedit——leaveitwiththoseonlywhichState—officialshaveinvented;
anditsfunctionswouldcease。Theverylanguageinwhichitslawsareregisteredandtheordersofitsagentsdailygiven，isaninstrumentnotintheremotestdegreeduetothelegislator;
butisonewhichhasunawaresgrownupduringmen’sintercoursewhilepursuingtheirpersonalsatisfactions。
Andthenatruthtowhichtheforegoingoneintroducesus，isthatthisspontaneously—formedsocialorganizationissoboundtogetherthatyoucannotactononepartwithoutactingmoreorlessonallparts。Weseethisunmistakablywhenacotton—famine，firstparalysingcertainmanufacturingdistrictsandthenaffectingthedoingsofwholesaleandretaildistributorsthroughoutthekingdom，aswellasthepeopletheysupply，goesontoaffectthemakersanddistributors，aswellasthewearers，ofotherfabrics——woollen，linen，etc。Orweseeitwhenariseinthepriceofcoal，besidesinfluencingdomesticlifeeverywhere，hindersthegreaterpartofourindustries，raisesthepricesofthecommoditiesproduced，alterstheconsumptionofthem，andchangesthehabitsofconsumers。Whatweseeclearlyinthesemarkedcaseshappensineverycase，insensibleorininsensibleways。Andmanifestly，ActsofParliamentareamongthosefactorswhich，beyondtheeffectsdirectlyproduced，havecountlessothereffectsofmultitudinouskinds。AsIheardremarkedbyadistinguishedprofessor，whosestudiesgiveamplemeansofjudging——"WhenonceyoubegintointerferewiththeorderofNaturethereisnoknowingwheretheresultswillend。"
Andifthisistrueofthatsub—humanorderofNaturetowhichhereferred，stillmoreisittrueofthatorderofNatureexistinginthesocialarrangementsproducedbyaggregatedhumanbeings。
Andnowtocarryhometheconclusionthatthelegislatorshouldbringtohisbusinessavividconsciousnessoftheseandothersuchbroadtruthsconcerningthehumansocietywithwhichheproposestodeal，letmepresentsomewhatmorefullyoneofthemnotyetmentioned。
Thecontinuanceofeveryhigherspeciesofcreaturedependsonconformity，nowtoone，nowtotheother，oftworadically—opposedprinciples。Theearlylivesofitsmembers，andtheadultlivesofitsmembers，havetobedealtwithincontraryways。Wewillcontemplatethemintheirnaturalorder。
Oneofthemostfamiliarfactsisthatanimalsofsuperiortypes，comparativelyslowinreachingmaturity，areenabledwhentheyhavereachedit，togivemoreaidtotheiroffspringthananimalsofinferiortypes。Theadultsfostertheiryoungduringperiodsmoreorlessprolonged，whileyettheyoungareunabletoprovideforthemselves;anditisobviousthatmaintenanceofthespeciescanbesecuredonlybyaparentalcareadjustedtotheneedconsequentonimperfection。Itrequiresnoprovingthattheblindunfledgedhedge—bird，ortheyoungpuppyevenafterithasacquiredsight，wouldforthwithdieifithadtokeepitselfwarmandobtainitsownfood。Thegratuitousparentalaidmustbegreatinproportionastheyoungoneisoflittleworth，eithertoitselfortoothers;anditmaydiminishasfastas，byincreasingdevelopment，theyoungoneacquiresworth，atfirstforself—sustentation，andby—and—byforsustentationofothers。
Thatistosay，duringimmaturity，benefitsreceivedmustbeinverselyasthepowerorabilityofthereceiver。Clearlyifduringthisfirstpartoflifebenefitswereproportionedtomerits，orrewardstodeserts，thespecieswoulddisappearinageneration。
Fromthisregimeofthefamily—group，letusturntotheregimeofthatlargergroupformedbytheadultmembersofthespecies。Askwhathappenswhenthenewindividual，acquiringcompleteuseofitspowersandceasingtohaveparentalaid，islefttoitself。Nowtherecomesintoplayaprinciplejustthereverseofthatabovedescribed。Throughouttherestofitslife，eachadultgetsbenefitinproportiontomerit——rewardinproportiontodesert：meritanddesertineachcasebeingunderstoodasabilitytofulfilalltherequirementsoflifetogetfood，tosecureshelter，toescapeenemies。Placedincompetitionwithmembersofitsownspeciesandinantagonismwithmembersofotherspecies，itdwindlesandgetskilledoff，orthrivesandpropagates，accordingasitisill—endowedorwell—endowed。Manifestlyanoppositeregime，coulditbemaintained，would，incourseoftime，befataltothespecies。Ifthebenefitsreceivedbyeachindividualwereproportionatetoitsinferiority——if，asaconsequence，multiplicationoftheinferiorwasfurtheredandmultiplicationofthesuperiorhindered，progressivedegradationwouldresult;andeventuallythedegeneratespecieswouldfailtoholditsgroundinpresenceofantagonisticspeciesandcompetingspecies。
Thebroadfactthen，heretobenoted，isthatNature’smodesoftreatmentinsidethefamily—groupandoutsidethefamily—group，arediametricallyopposedtooneanother;andthattheintrusionofeithermodeintothesphereoftheother，wouldbefataltothespecieseithermediatelyorremotely。
Doesanyonethinkthatthelikedoesnotholdofthehumanspecies？Hecannotdenythatwithinthehumanfamily，aswithinanyinferiorfamily，itwouldbefataltoproportionbenefitstomerits。Canheassertthatoutsidethefamily，amongadults，thereshouldnotbeaproportioningofbenefitstomerits？Willhecontendthatnomischiefwillresultifthelowlyendowedareenabledtothriveandmultiplyasmuchas，ormorethan，thehighlyendowed？Asocietyofmen，standingtowardsothersocietiesinrelationsofeitherantagonismorcompetition，maybeconsideredasaspecies，or，moreliterally，asavarietyofaspecies;anditmustbetrueofitasofotherspeciesorvarieties，thatitwillbeunabletoholditsowninthestrugglewithothersocieties，ifitdisadvantagesitssuperiorunitsthatitmayadvantageitsinferiorunits。Surelynonecanfailtoseethatweretheprincipleoffamilylifetobeadoptedandfullycarriedoutinsociallifewererewardalwaysgreatinproportionasdesertwassmall，fatalresultstothesocietywouldquicklyfollow;andifso，thenevenapartialintrusionofthefamilyregimeintotheregimeoftheState，willbeslowlyfollowedbyfatalresults。Societyinitscorporatecapacity，cannotwithoutmediateorremoterdisasterinterferewiththeplayoftheseopposedprinciplesunderwhicheveryspecieshasreachedsuchfitnessforitsmodeoflifeasitpossesses，andunderwhichitmaintainsthatfitness。
Isayadvisedly——societyinitscorporatecapacity：notintendingtoexcludeorcondemnaidgiventotheinferiorbythesuperiorintheirindividualcapacities。Thoughwhengivensoindiscriminatelyastoenabletheinferiortomultiply，suchaidentailsmischief;yetintheabsenceofaidgivenbysociety，individualaid，moregenerallydemandedthannow，andassociatedwithagreatersenseofresponsibility，would，ontheaverage，begivenwiththeeffectoffosteringtheunfortunateworthyratherthantheinnatelyunworthy：therebeingalways，too，theconcomitantsocialbenefitarisingfromcultureofthesympathies。Butallthismaybeadmittedwhileassertingthattheradicaldistinctionbetweenfamily—ethicsandState—ethicsmustbemaintained;andthatwhilegenerositymustbetheessentialprincipleoftheone，justicemustbetheessentialprincipleoftheother——arigorousmaintenanceofthosenormalrelationsamongcitizensunderwhicheachgetsinreturnforhislabour，skilledorunskilled，bodilyormental，asmuchasisprovedtobeitsvaluebythedemandforit：suchreturn，therefore，aswillenablehimtothriveandrearoffspringinproportiontothesuperioritieswhichmakehimvaluabletohimselfandothers。
Andyet，notwithstandingtheconspicuousnessofthesetruths，whichshouldstrikeeveryonewholeaveshislexicons，andhislawdeeds，andhisledgers，andlooksabroadintothatnaturalorderofthingsunderwhichweexist，andtowhichwemustconform，thereiscontinualadvocacyofpaternalgovernment。Theintrusionoffamily—ethicsintotheethicsoftheState，insteadofbeingregardedassociallyinjurious，ismoreandmoredemandedastheonlyefficientmeanstosocialbenefit。Sofarhasthisdelusionnowgone，thatitvitiatesthebeliefsofthosewhomight，morethanallothers，bethoughtsafefromit。IntheessaytowhichtheCobdenClubawardeditsprizein1880，thereoccurstheassertionthat"thetruthofFreeTradeiscloudedoverbythelaissez—fairefallacy;"andwearetoldthat"weneedagreatdealmoreofpaternalgovernment——thatbugbearoftheoldeconomists。"（24*）
Vitallyimportantasisthetruthaboveinsistedupon，sinceacceptanceorrejectionofitaffectstheentirefabricofpoliticalconclusionsformed，ImaybeexcusedifIemphasizeitbyherequotingcertainpassagescontainedinaworkIpublishedin1851：premising，only，thatthereadermustnotholdmecommittedtosuchteleologicalimplicationsastheycontain。
Afterdescribing"thatstateofuniversalwarfaremaintainedthroughoutthelowercreation，"andshowingthatanaverageofbenefitresultsfromit，Ihavecontinuedthus：——
"Notefurther，thattheircarnivorousenemiesnotonlyremovefromherbivorousherdsindividualspasttheirprime，butalsoweedoutthesickly，themalformed，andtheleastfleetorpowerful。Bytheaidofwhichpurifyingprocess，aswellasbythefightingsouniversalinthepairingseason，allvitiationoftheracethroughthemultiplicationofitsinferiorsamplesisprevented;andthemaintenanceofaconstitutioncompletelyadaptedtosurroundingconditions，andthereforemostproductiveofhappiness，isensured。
"Thedevelopmentofthehighercreationisaprogresstowardsaformofbeingcapableofahappinessundiminishedbythesedrawbacks。Itisinthehumanracethattheconsummationistobeaccomplished。Civilizationisthelaststageofitsaccomplishment。Andtheidealmanisthemaninwhomalltheconditionsofthataccomplishmentarefulfilled。Meanwhile，thewell—beingofexistinghumanity，andtheunfoldingofitintothisultimateperfection，arebothsecuredbythatsamebeneficent，thoughseverediscipline，towhichtheanimatecreationatlargeissubject：adisciplinewhichispitilessintheworkingoutofgood：afelicitypursuinglawwhichneverswervesfortheavoidanceofpartialandtemporarysuffering。Thepovertyoftheincapable，thedistressesthatcameupontheimprudent，thestarvationoftheidle，andthoseshoulderingsasideoftheweakbythestrong，whichleavesomany’inshallowsandinmiseries，’arethedecreesofalarge，far—seeingbenevolence。"
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"Tobecomefitforthesocialstate，manhasnotonlytolosehissavageness，buthehastoacquirethecapacitiesneedfulforcivilizedlife。Powerofapplicationmustbedeveloped;suchmodificationoftheintellectasshallqualifyitforitsnewtasksmusttakeplace;and，aboveall，theremustbegainedtheabilitytosacrificeasmallmediategratificationforafuturegreatone。Thestateoftransitionwillofcoursebeanunhappystate。Miseryinevitablyresultsfromincongruitybetweenconstitutionsandconditions。Alltheseevilswhichafflictus，andseemtotheuninitiatedtheobviousconsequencesofthisorthatremovablecause，areunavoidableattendantsontheadaptationnowinprogress。Humanityisbeingpressedagainsttheinexorablenecessitiesofitsnewposition——isbeingmouldedintoharmonywiththem，andhastobeartheresultingunhappinessasbestitcan。Theprocessmustbeundergone，andthesufferingsmustbeendured。Nopoweronearth，nocunningly—devisedlawsofstatesmen，noworld—rectifyingschemesofthehumane，nocommunistpanaceas，noreformsthatmeneverdidbroachoreverwillbroach，candiminishthemonejot。Intensifiedtheymaybe，andare;andinpreventingtheirintensification，thephilanthropicwillfindamplescopeforexertion。Butthereisboundupwiththechangesanormalamountofsuffering，whichcannotbelessenedwithoutalteringtheverylawsoflife。"
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"Ofcourse，insofarastheseverityofthisprocessismitigatedbythespontaneoussympathyofmenforeachother，itisproperthatitshouldbemitigated：albeitthereisunquestionablyharmdonewhensympathyisshown，withoutanyregardtoultimateresults。Butthedrawbackshencearisingarenothinglikecommensuratewiththebenefitsotherwiseconferred。
Onlywhenthissympathypromptstoabreachofequity——onlywhenitoriginatesaninterferenceforbiddenbythelawofequalfreedom——onlywhen，bysodoing，itsuspendsinsomeparticulardepartmentoflifetherelationshipbetweenconstitutionandconditions，doesitworkpureevil。Then，however，itdefeatsitsownend。Insteadofdiminishingsuffering，iteventuallyincreasesit。Itfavoursthemultiplicationofthoseworstfittedforexistence，and，byconsequence，hindersthemultiplicationofthosebestfittedforexistence——leaving，asitdoes，lessroomforthem。Ittendstofilltheworldwiththosetowhomlifewillbringmostpain，andtendstokeepoutofitthosetowhomlifewillbringmostpleasure。Itinflictspositivemisery，andpreventspositivehappiness。"
SocialStatics，pp。322—5andpp。380—1（editionof1851）。
Thelapseofathirdofacenturysincethesepassageswerepublished，hasbroughtmenoreasonsforretreatingfromthepositiontakenupinthem。Contrariwise，ithasbroughtavastamountofevidencestrengtheningthatposition。Thebeneficialresultsofthesurvivalofthefittest，provetobeimmeasurablygreaterthanthoseaboveindicated。Theprocessof"naturalselection，"asMrDarwincalledit，co—operatingwithatendencytovariationandtoinheritanceofvariations，hehasshowntobeachiefcause（thoughnot，Ibelieve，thesolecause）ofthatevolutionthroughwhichalllivingthings，beginningwiththelowestanddivergingandre—divergingastheyevolved，havereachedtheirpresentdegreesoforganizationandadaptationtotheirmodesoflife。Sofamiliarhasthistruthbecomethatsomeapologyseemsneededfornamingit。Andyet，strangetosay，nowthatthistruthisrecognizedbymostcultivatedpeoplenowthatthebeneficentworkingofthesurvivalofthefittesthasbeensoimpressedonthemthat，muchmorethanpeopleinpasttimes，theymightbeexpectedtohesitatebeforeneutralizingitsactionnowmorethaneverbeforeinthehistoryoftheworld，aretheydoingalltheycantofurthersurvivaloftheunfittest！