EventhoughignoringtheoppositeopinionofGermanwritersonjurisprudence，andevenwithoutananalysiswhichprovestheirownopiniontobeuntenable，Bentham’sdisciplesmighthavebeenledtotreatlesscavalierlythedoctrineofnaturalrights。Forsundrygroupsofsocialphenomenaunitetoprovethatthisdoctrineiswellwarranted，andthedoctrinetheysetagainstitunwarranted。
Tribesinvariouspartsoftheworldshowusthatbeforedefinitegovernmentarises，conductisregulatedbycustoms。TheBechuanasarecontrolledby"long—acknowledgedcustoms。"（11*）
AmongtheKorannaHottentots，whoonly"toleratetheirchiefsratherthanobeythem，"（12*）"whenancientusagesarenotintheway，everymanseemstoactasisrightinhisowneyes。"（13*）
TheAraucaniansareguidedby"nothingmorethanprimordialusagesortacitconventions。"（14*）AmongtheKirghizesthejudgmentsoftheeldersarebasedon"universallyrecognizedcustoms。"（15*）So，too，oftheDyaks，RajahBrooketellsusthat"customseemssimplytohavebecomethelaw;andbreakingcustomleadstoafine。"（16*）Sosacredarememorialcustomswiththeprimitiveman，thatheneverdreamsofquestioningtheirauthority;andwhengovernmentarises，itspowerislimitedbythem。InMadagascartheking’swordsufficesonly"wherethereisnolaw，custom，orprecedent。"（17*）RafflestellsusthatinJava"thecustomsofthecountry"（18*）restrainthewilloftheruler。
InSumatra，too，thepeopledonotallowtheirchiefsto"altertheirancientusages。"（19*）Nay，occasionally，asinAshantee，"theattempttochangesomecustoms"hascausedaking’sdethronement。"（20*）Now，amongthecustomswhichwethusfindtobepre—governmental，andwhichsubordinategovernmentalpowerwhenitisestablished，arethosewhichrecognizecertainindividualrights——rightstoactincertainwaysandpossesscertainthings。Evenwheretherecognitionofpropertyisleastdeveloped，thereisproprietorshipofweapons，tools，andpersonalornaments;and，generally，therecognitiongoesfarbeyondthis。AmongsuchNorth—AmericanIndiansastheSnakes，whoarewithoutgovernment，thereisprivateownershipofhorses。BytheChippewayans，"whohavenoregulargovernment，"gametakeninprivatetraps"isconsideredasprivateproperty。"（21*）Kindredfactsconcerninghuts，utensils，andotherpersonalbelongings，mightbebroughtinevidencefromaccountsoftheAhts，theComanches，theEsquimaux，andtheBrazilianIndians。Amongvariousuncivilizedpeoples，customhasestablishedtheclaimtothecropgrownonaclearedplotofground，thoughnottothegrounditself;andtheTodas，whoarewhollywithoutpoliticalorganization，makealikedistinctionbetweenownershipofcattleandofland。Kolff’sstatementrespecting"thepeacefulArafuras"
wellsumsuptheevidence。They"recognizetherightofproperty，inthefullestsenseoftheword，withouttherebeingany[other]
authorityamongthemthanthedecisionsoftheirelders，accordingtothecustomsoftheirforefathers。"（22*）Butevenwithoutseekingproofsamongtheuncivilized，sufficientproofsarefurnishedbyearlystagesofthecivilized。Benthamandhisfollowersseemtohaveforgottenthatourowncommonlawismainlyanembodimentof"thecustomsoftherealm。"Itdidbutgivedefiniteshapetothatwhichitfoundexisting。Thus，thefactandthefictionareexactlyoppositetowhattheyallege。
Thefactisthatpropertywaswellrecognizedbeforelawexisted;
thefictionisthat"propertyisthecreationoflaw。"
Considerationsofanotherclassmightalonehaveledthemtopausehadtheydulyconsideredtheirmeanings。Wereittrue，asallegedbyBentham，thatGovernmentfulfilsitsoffice"bycreatingrightswhichitconfersonindividuals;"then，theimplicationwouldbe，thatthereshouldbenothingapproachingtouniformityintherightsconferredbydifferentgovernments。Intheabsenceofadeterminingcauseover—rulingtheirdecisions，theprobabilitieswouldbemanytooneagainstconsiderablecorrespondenceamongtheirdecisions。Butthereisverygreatcorrespondence。Lookwherewemay，wefindthatgovernmentsinterdictthesamekindsofaggressions;and，byimplication，recognizethesamekindsofclaims。Theyhabituallyforbidhomicide，theft，adultery：thusassertingthatcitizensmaynotbetrespassedagainstincertainways。Andassocietyadvances，minorindividualclaimsareprotectedbygivingremediesforbreachofcontract，libel，falsewitness，etc。Inaword，comparisonsshowthatthoughcodesoflawdifferintheirdetailsastheybecomeelaborated，theyagreeintheirfundamentals。Whatdoesthisprove？Itcannotbebychancethattheythusagree。
Theyagreebecausetheallegedcreatingofrightswasnothingelsethangivingformalsanctionandbetterdefinitiontothoseassertionsofclaimsandrecognitionsofclaimswhichnaturallyoriginatefromtheindividualdesiresofmenwhohavetoliveinpresenceofoneanother。
ComparativeSociologydisclosesanothergroupoffactshavingthesameimplication。AlongwithsocialprogressitbecomesinanincreasingdegreethebusinessoftheState，notonlytogiveformalsanctiontomen’srights，butalsotodefendthemagainstaggressors。Beforepermanentgovernmentexists，andinmanycasesafteritisconsiderablydeveloped，therightsofeachindividualareassertedandmaintainedbyhimself，orbyhisfamily。Alikeamongsavagetribesatpresent，amongcivilizedpeoplesinthepast，andevennowinunsettledpartsofEurope，thepunishmentformurderisamatterofprivateconcern："thesacreddutyofbloodrevenge"devolvesonsomeoneofaclusterofrelatives。
Similarly，compensationsforaggressionsonpropertyandforinjuriesofotherkinds，areinearlystatesofsocietyindependentlysoughtbyeachmanorfamily。Butassocialorganizationadvances，thecentralrulingpowerundertakesmoreandmoretosecuretoindividualstheirpersonalsafety，thesafetyoftheirpossessions，and，tosomeextent，theenforcementoftheirclaimsestablishedbycontract。Originallyconcernedalmostexclusivelywithdefenceofthesocietyasawholeagainstothersocieties，orwithconductingitsattackonothersocieties，Governmenthascomemoreandmoretodischargethefunctionofdefendingindividualsagainstoneanother。Itneedsbuttorecallthedayswhenmenhabituallycarriedweapons，ortobearinmindthegreatersafetytopersonandpropertyachievedbyimprovedpolice—administrationduringourowntime，ortonotetheincreasedfacilitiesnowgivenforrecoveringsmalldebts，toseethattheinsuringtoeachindividualtheunhinderedpursuitoftheobjectsoflife，withinlimitssetbyothers’likepursuits，ismoreandmorerecognizedasadutyoftheState。Inotherwords，alongwithsocialprogress，theregoesnotonlyafullerrecognitionofthesewhichwecallnaturalrights，butalsoabetterenforcementofthembyGovernment：Governmentbecomesmoreandmoretheservanttotheseessentialpre—requisitesforindividualwelfare。
Analliedandstillmoresignificantchangehasaccompaniedthis。Inearlystages，atthesametimethattheStatefailedtoprotecttheindividualagainstaggression，itwasitselfanaggressorinmultitudinousways。Thoseancientsocietieswhichprogressedenoughtoleaverecords，havingallbeenconqueringsocieties，showuseverywherethetraitsofthemilitantregime。
As，fortheeffectualorganizationoffightingbodies，thesoldiers，absolutelyobedient，mustactindependentlyonlywhencommandedtodoit;so，fortheeffectualorganizationoffightingsocieties，citizensmusthavetheirindividualitiessubordinated。Privateclaimsareover—riddenbypublicclaims;
andthesubjectlosesmuchofhisfreedomofaction。Oneresultisthatthesystemofregimentation，pervadingthesocietyaswellasthearmy，causesdetailedregulationofconduct。Thedictatesoftheruler，sanctifiedbyascriptionofthemtohisdivineancestor，areunrestrainedbyanyconceptionofindividualliberty;andtheyspecifymen’sactionstoanunlimitedextent——
downtokindsoffoodeaten，modesofpreparingthem，shapingofbeards，fringingofdresses，sowingofgrain，etc。Thisomnipresentcontrol，whichtheancientEasternnationsingeneralexhibited，wasexhibitedalsoinlargemeasurebytheGreeks;andwascarriedtoitsgreatestpitchinthemostmilitantcity，Sparta。SimilarlyduringmedievaldaysthroughoutEurope，characterizedbychronicwarfarewithitsappropriatepoliticalformsandideas，therewerescarcelyanyboundstoGovernmentalinterference：agriculture，manufactures，trade，wereregulatedindetail;religiousbeliefsandobservanceswereimposed;andrulerssaidbywhomalonefursmightbeworn，silverused，booksissued，pigeonskept，etc。etc。Butalongwithincreaseofindustrialactivities，andimpliedsubstitutionoftheregimeofcontractfortheregimeofstatus，andgrowthofassociatedsentiments，therewent（untiltherecentreactionaccompanyingreversiontomilitantactivity）adecreaseofmeddlingwithpeople’sdoings。Legislationgraduallyceasedtoregulatethecroppingoffields，ordictatetheratioofcattletoacreage，orspecifymodesofmanufactureandmaterialstobeused，orfixwagesandprices，orinterferewithdressesandgames（exceptwheretherewasgambling），orputbountiesandpenaltiesonimportsorexports，orprescribemen’sbeliefs，religiousorpolitical，orpreventthemfromcombiningastheypleased，ortravellingwheretheyliked。Thatistosay，throughoutalargerangeofconduct，therightofthecitizentouncontrolledactionhasbeenmadegoodagainstthepretensionsoftheStatetocontrolhim。Whiletherulingagencyhasincreasinglyhelpedhimtoexcludeintrudersfromthatprivatesphereinwhichhepursuestheobjectsoflife，ithasitselfretreatedfromthatsphere;
or，inotherwords——decreaseditsintrusions。
Notevenyethavewenotedalltheclassesoffactswhichtellthesamestory。Itistoldafreshintheimprovementsandreformsoflawitself;aswellasintheadmissionsandassertionsofthosewhohaveeffectedthem。"Soearlyasthefifteenthcentury，"saysProfessorPollock，"wefindacommon—lawjudgedeclaringthat，asinacaseunprovidedforbyknownrulestheciviliansandcanonistsdeviseanewruleaccordingto’thelawofnaturewhichisthegroundofalllaws，’theCourtsofWestminstercanandwilldothelike。"（23*）Again，oursystemofEquity，introducedanddevelopedasitwastomakeupfortheshortcomingsofCommon—law，orrectifyitsinequities，proceededthroughoutonarecognitionofmen’sclaimsconsideredasexistingapartfromlegalwarrant。Andthechangesoflawnowfromtimetotimemadeafterresistance，aresimilarlymadeinpursuanceofcurrentideasconcerningtherequirementsofjustice：ideaswhich，insteadofbeingderivedfromthelaw，areopposedtothelaw。Forexample，thatrecentActwhichgivestoamarriedwomanarightofpropertyinherownearnings，evidentlyoriginatedintheconsciousnessthatthenaturalconnexionbetweenlabourexpendedandbenefitenjoyed，isonewhichshouldbemaintainedinallcases。Thereformedlawdidnotcreatetheright，butrecognitionoftherightcreatedthereformedlaw。
Thus，historicalevidencesoffivedifferentkindsuniteinteachingthat，confusedasarethepopularnotionsconcerningrights，andincluding，astheydo，agreatdealwhichshouldbeexcluded，yettheyshadowforthatruth。
Itremainsnowtoconsidertheoriginalsourceofthistruth。
InapreviouspaperIhavespokenoftheopensecret，thattherecanbenosocialphenomenabutwhat，ifweanalysethemtothebottom，bringusdowntothelawsoflife;andthattherecanbenotrueunderstandingofthemwithoutreferencetothelawsoflife。Letus，then，transferthisquestionofnaturalrightsfromthecourtofpoliticstothecourtofscience——thescienceoflife。Thereaderneedfeelnoalarm：itssimplestandmostobviousfactswillsuffice。Wewillcontemplatefirstthegeneralconditionstoindividuallife;andthenthegeneralconditionstosociallife。Weshallfindthatbothyieldthesameverdict。
Animallifeinvolveswaste;wastemustbemetbyrepair;repairimpliesnutrition。Again，nutritionpresupposesobtainmentoffood;foodcannotbegotwithoutpowersofprehension，and，usually，oflocomotion;andthatthesepowersmayachievetheirends，theremustbefreedomtomoveabout。Ifyoushutupamammalinasmallspace，ortieitslimbstogether，ortakefromitthefoodithasprocured，youeventually，bypersistenceinoneorotherofthesecourses，causeitsdeath。Passingacertainpoint，hindrancetothefulfilmentoftheserequirementsisfatal。Andallthis，whichholdsofthehigheranimalsatlarge，ofcourseholdsofman。
Ifweadoptpessimismasacreed，andwithitaccepttheimplicationthatlifeingeneralbeinganevilshouldbeputanendto，thenthereisnoethicalwarrantfortheseactionsbywhichlifeismaintained：thewholequestiondrops。Butifweadopteithertheoptimistvieworthemelioristview——ifwesaythatlifeonthewholebringsmorepleasurethanpain;orthatitisonthewaytobecomesuchthatitwillyieldmorepleasurethanpain;thentheseactionsbywhichlifeismaintainedarejustified，andthereresultsawarrantforthefreedomtoperformthem。Thosewhoholdthatlifeisvaluable，hold，byimplication，thatmenoughtnottobepreventedfromcaringonlife—sustainingactivities。Inotherwords，ifitissaidtobe"right"thattheyshouldcarrythemon，then，bypermutation，wegettheassertionthatthey"havearight"tocarrythemon。Clearlytheconceptionof"naturalrights"originatesinrecognitionofthetruththatiflifeisjustifiable，theremustbeajustificationfortheperformanceofactsessentialtoitspreservation;and，therefore，ajustificationforthoselibertiesandclaimswhichmakesuchactspossible。
Butbeingtrueofothercreaturesasofman，thisisapropositionlackingethicalcharacter。Ethicalcharacterarisesonlywiththedistinctionbetweenwhattheindividualmaydoincaringonhislife—sustainingactivities，andwhathemaynotdo。
Thisdistinctionobviouslyresultsfromthepresenceofhisfellows。Amongthosewhoareincloseproximity，orevenatsomedistanceapart，thedoingsofeachareapttointerferewiththedoingsofothers;andintheabsenceofproofthatsomemaydowhattheywillwithoutlimit，whileothersmaynot，mutuallimitationisnecessitated。Thenon—ethicalformoftherighttopursueends，passesintotheethicalform，whenthereisrecognizedthedifferencebetweenactswhichcanbeperformedwithouttransgressingthelimits，andotherswhichcannotbesoperformed。
This，whichistheaprioriconclusion，istheconclusionyieldedaposteriori，whenwestudythedoingsoftheuncivilized。Initsvaguestform，mutuallimitationofspheresofaction，andtheideasandsentimentsassociatedwithit，areseenintherelationsofgroupstooneanother。Habituallytherecometobeestablished，certainboundstotheterritorieswithinwhicheachtribeobtainsitslivelihood;andthesebounds，whennotrespected，aredefended。AmongtheWood—Veddahs，whohavenopoliticalorganization，thesmallclanshavetheirrespectiveportionsofforest;and"theseconventionalallotmentsarealwayshonourablyrecognized。"（24*）OftheungovernedtribesofTasmania，wearetoldthat"theirhuntinggroundswerealldetermined，andtrespasserswereliabletoattack。"（25*）And，manifestly，thequarrelscausedamongtribesbyintrusionsononeanother’sterritories，tend，inthelongrun，tofixboundsandtogiveacertainsanctiontothem。Aswitheachinhabitedarea，sowitheachinhabitinggroup。Adeathinone，rightlyorwronglyascribedtosomebodyinanother，prompts"thesacreddutyofblood—revenge;"andthoughretaliationsarethusmadechronic，somerestraintisputonnewaggressions。Likecausesworkedlikeeffectsinthoseearlystagesofcivilizedsocieties，duringwhichfamiliesorclans，ratherthanindividuals，werethepoliticalunits;andduringwhicheachfamilyorclanhadtomaintainitselfanditspossessionsagainstotherssuch。Thismutualrestraint，whichinthenatureofthingsarisesbetweensmallcommunities，similarlyarisesbetweenindividualsineachcommunity;andtheideasandusagesappropriatetotheonearemoreorlessappropriatetotheother。Thoughwithineachgroupthereiseveratendencyforthestrongertoaggressontheweaker;yet，inmostcases，consciousnessoftheevilsresultingfromaggressiveconductservestorestrain。Everywhereamongprimitivepeoples，trespassesarefollowedbycounter—trespasses。
SaysTurneroftheTannese，"adulteryandsomeothercrimesarekeptincheckbythefearofclub—law。"（26*）FitzroytellsusthatthePatagonian，"ifhedoesnotinjureoroffendhisneighbour，isnotinterferedwithbyothers："（27*）personalvengeancebeingthepenaltyforinjury。WereadoftheUaupesthat"theyhaveverylittlelawofanykind;butwhattheyhaveisofstrictretaliation，aneyeforaneyeandatoothforatooth。"（28*）Andthatthelextalionistendstoestablishadistinctionbetweenwhateachmemberofthecommunitymaysafelydoandwhathemaynotsafelydo，andconsequentlytogivesanctionstoactionswithinacertainrangebutnotbeyondthatrange，isobvious。Though，saysSchoolcraftoftheChippewayans，they"havenoregulargovernment，aseverymanislordinhisownfamily，theyareinfluencedmoreorlessbycertainprincipleswhichconducetotheirgeneralbenefit："（29*）oneoftheprinciplesnamedbeingrecognitionofprivateproperty。
Howmutuallimitationofactivitiesoriginatestheideasandsentimentsimpliedbythephrase"naturalrights，"weareshownmostdistinctlybythefewpeacefultribeswhichhaveeithernominalgovernmentsornoneatall。Beyondthosefactswhichillustratescrupulousregardforoneanother’sclaimsamongtheTodas，Santals，Lepchas，Bodo，Chakmas，Jakuns，Arafuras，etc。，wehavethefactthattheutterlyuncivilizedWood—Veddahs，withoutanysocialorganizationatall，"thinkitperfectlyinconceivablethatanypersonshouldevertakethatwhichdoesnotbelongtohim，orstrikehisfellow，orsayanythingthatisuntrue。"（30*）Thusitbecomesclear，alikefromanalysisofcausesandobservationoffacts，thatwhilethepositiveelementintherighttocarryonlife—sustainingactivities，originatesfromthelawsoflife，thatnegativeelementwhichgivesethicalcharactertoit，originatesfromtheconditionsproducedbysocialaggregation。
Soalientothetruth，indeed，istheallegedcreationofrightsbygovernment，that，contrariwise，rightshavingbeenestablishedmoreorlessclearlybeforegovernmentarises，becomeobscuredasgovernmentdevelopsalongwiththatmilitantactivitywhich，bothbythetakingofslavesandtheestablishmentofranks，producesstatus;andtherecognitionofrightsbeginsagaintogetdefinitenessonlyasfastasmilitancyceasestobechronicandgovernmentalpowerdeclines。
Whenweturnfromthelifeoftheindividualtothelifeofthesociety，thesamelessonistaughtus。
Thoughmereloveofcompanionshippromptsprimitivementoliveingroups，yetthechiefprompterisexperienceoftheadvantagestobederivedfromco—operation。Onwhatconditiononlycanco—operationarise？Evidentlyonconditionthatthosewhojointheireffortsseverallygainbydoingso。If，asinthesimplestcases，theyunitetoachievesomethingwhicheachbyhimselfcannotachieve，orcanachievelessreadily，itmustbeonthetacitunderstanding，eitherthattheyshallsharethebenefit（aswhengameiscaughtbyapartyofthem）orthatifonereapsallthebenefitnow（asinbuildingahutorclearingaplot）theothersshallseverallyreapequivalentbenefitsintheirturns。When，insteadofeffortsjoinedindoingthesamething，differentthingsareeffectedbythem——whendivisionoflabourarises，withaccompanyingbarterofproducts，thearrangementimpliesthateach，inreturnforsomethingwhichhehasinsuperfluousquantity，getsanapproximateequivalentofsomethingwhichhewants。Ifhehandsovertheoneanddoesnotgettheother，futureproposalstoexchangewillmeetwithnoresponse。Therewillbeareversiontothatrudestconditioninwhicheachmakeseverythingforhimself。Hencethepossibilityofco—operationdependsonfulfilmentofcontract，tacitorovert。
Nowthiswhichweseemustholdoftheveryfirststeptowardsthatindustrialorganizationbywhichthelifeofasocietyismaintained，mustholdmoreorlessfullythroughoutitsdevelopment。Thoughthemilitanttypeoforganization，withitssystemofstatusproducedbychronicwar，greatlyobscurestheserelationsofcontract，yettheyremainpartiallyinforce。
Theystillholdbetweenfreemen，andbetweentheheadsofthosesmallgroupswhichformtheunitsofearlysocieties;and，inameasure，theystillholdwithinthesesmallgroupsthemselves;
sincesurvivalofthemasgroups，impliessuchrecognitionoftheclaimsoftheirmembers，evenwhenslaves，thatinreturnfortheirlabourstheygetsufficienciesoffood，clothing，andprotection。Andwhen，withdiminutionofwarfareandgrowthoftrade，voluntaryco—operationmoreandmorereplacescompulsoryco—operation，andthecarryingonofsociallifebyexchangeunderagreement，partiallysuspendedforatime，graduallyre—establishesitself;itsre—establishmentmakespossiblethatvastelaborateindustrialorganizationbywhichagreatnationissustained。
Forinproportionascontractsareunhinderedandtheperformanceofthemcertain，thegrowthisgreatandthesociallifeactive。Itisnotnowbyoneorotheroftwoindividualswhocontract，thattheevileffectsofbreachofcontractareexperienced。Inanadvancedsociety，theyareexperiencedbyentireclassesofproducersanddistributors，whichhavearisenthroughdivisionoflabour;and，eventually，theyareexperiencedbyeverybody。AskonwhatconditionitisthatBirminghamdevotesitselftomanufacturinghardware，orpartofStaffordshiretomakingpottery，orLancashiretoweavingcotton。Askhowtheruralpeoplewhoheregrowwheatandtherepasturecattle，finditpossibletooccupythemselvesintheirspecialbusinesses。
Thesegroupscanseverallythusactonlyifeachgetsfromtheothersinexchangeforitsownsurplusproduct，duesharesoftheirsurplusproducts。Nolongerdirectlyeffectedbybarter，thisobtainmentoftheirrespectivesharesofoneanother’sproductsisindirectlyeffectedbymoney;andifweaskhoweachdivisionofproducersgetsitsdueamountoftherequiredmoney，theansweris——byfulfilmentofcontract。IfLeedsmakeswoollensanddoesnot，byfulfilmentofcontract，receivethemeansofobtainingfromagriculturaldistrictstheneedfulquantityoffood，itmuststarve，andstopproducingwoollens。IfSouthWalessmeltsironandtherecomesnoequivalentagreedupon，enablingittogetfabricsforclothing，itsindustrymustcease。Andsothroughout，ingeneralandindetail。Thatmutualdependenceofpartswhichweseeinsocialorganization，asinindividualorganization，ispossibleonlyonconditionthatwhileeachpartdoestheparticularkindofworkithasbecomeadjustedto，itreceivesitsproportionofthosematerialsrequiredforrepairandgrowth，whichalltheotherpartshavejoinedtoproduce：suchproportionbeingsettledbybargaining。Moreover，itisbyfulfilmentofcontractthatthereiseffectedabalancingofallthevariousproductstothevariousneeds——thelargemanufactureofknivesandthesmallmanufactureoflancets;
thegreatgrowthofwheatandthelittlegrowthofmustard—seed。
Thecheckonundueproductionofeachcommodity，resultsfromfindingthatafteracertainquantity，noonewillagreetotakeanyfurtherquantityontermsthatyieldanadequatemoneyequivalent。Andsothereispreventedauselessexpenditureoflabourinproducingthatwhichsocietydoesnotwant。
Lastly，wehavetonotethestillmoresignificantfactthattheconditionunderwhichonlyanyspecializedgroupofworkerscangrowwhenthecommunityneedsmoreofitsparticularkindofwork，isthatcontractsshallbefreeandfulfilmentofthemenforced。Ifwhen，fromlackofmaterial，Lancashirefailedtosupplytheusualquantityofcotton—goods，therehadbeensuchinterferencewithcontractsaspreventedYorkshirefromaskingagreaterpriceforitswoollens，whichitwasenabledtodobythegreaterdemandforthem，therewouldhavebeennotemptationtoputmorecapitalintothewoollenmanufacture，noincreaseintheamountofmachineryandnumberofartizansemployed，andnoincreaseofwoollens：theconsequencebeingthatthewholecommunitywouldhavesufferedfromnothavingdeficientcottonsreplacedbyextrawoollens。Whatseriousinjurymayresulttoanationifitsmembersarehinderedfromcontractingwithoneanother，waswellshowninthecontrastbetweenEnglandandFranceinrespectofrailways。Here，thoughobstacleswereatfirstraisedbyclassespredominantinthelegislature，theobstacleswerenotsuchaspreventedcapitalistsfrominvesting，engineersfromfurnishingdirectiveskill，orcontractorsfromundertakingworks;andthehighinterestoriginallyobtainedoninvestments，thegreatprofitsmadebycontractors，andthelargepaymentsreceivedbyengineers，ledtothatdraftingofmoney，energy，andability，intorailway—making，whichrapidlydevelopedourrailway—system，totheenormousincreaseofournationalprosperity。ButwhenM。Thiers，thenMinisterofPublicWorks，cameovertoinspect，andhavingbeentakenaboutbyMrVignoles，saidtohimwhenleaving："IdonotthinkrailwaysaresuitedtoFrance，"（31*）thereresulted，fromtheconsequentpolicyofhinderingfreecontract，adelayof"eightortenyears"inthatmaterialprogresswhichFranceexperiencedwhenrailwaysweremade。
Whatdoallthesefactsmean？Theymeanthatforthehealthfulactivityanddueproportioningofthoseindustries，occupations，professions，whichmaintainandaidthelifeofasociety，theremust，inthefirstplace，befewrestrictionsonmen’slibertiestomakeagreementswithoneanother，andtheremust，inthesecondplace，beanenforcementoftheagreementswhichtheydomake。Aswehaveseen，thechecksnaturallyarisingtoeachman’sactionswhenmenbecomeassociated，arethoseonlywhichresultfrommutuallimitation;andthereconsequentlycanbenoresultingchecktothecontractstheyvoluntarilymake：
interferencewiththeseisinterferencewiththoserightstofreeactionwhichremaintoeachwhentherightsofothersarefullyrecognized。Andthen，aswehaveseen，enforcementoftheirrightsimpliesenforcementofcontractsmade;sincebreachofcontractisindirectaggression。If，whenacustomerononesideofthecounterasksashopkeeperontheotherforashilling’sworthofhisgoods，and，whiletheshopkeeper’sbackisturned，walksoffwiththegoodswithoutleavingtheshillinghetacitlycontractedtogive，hisactdiffersinnoessentialwayfromrobbery。Ineachsuchcasetheindividualinjuredisdeprivedofsomethinghepossessed，withoutreceivingtheequivalentsomethingbargainedfor;andisinthestateofhavingexpendedhislabourwithoutgettingbenefit——hashadanessentialconditiontothemaintenanceoflifeinfringed。
Thus，then，itresultsthattorecognizeandenforcetherightsofindividuals，isatthesametimetorecognizeandenforcetheconditionstoanormalsociallife。Thereisonevitalrequirementforboth。
Beforeturningtothosecorollarieswhichhavepracticalapplications，letusobservehowthespecialconclusionsdrawnconvergetotheonegeneralconclusionoriginallyforeshadowed——
glancingattheminreversedorder。
Wehavejustfoundthatthepre—requisitetoindividuallifeisinadoublesensethepre—requisitetosociallife。Thelifeofasociety，inwhicheveroftwosensesconceived，dependsonmaintenanceofindividualrights。Ifitisnothingmorethanthesumofthelivesofcitizens，thisimplicationisobvious。Ifitconsistsofthosemanyunlikeactivitieswhichcitizenscarryoninmutualdependence，stillthisaggregateimpersonalliferisesorfallsaccordingastherightsofindividualsareenforcedordenied。
Studyofmen’spolitico—ethicalideasandsentiments，leadstoalliedconclusions。Primitivepeoplesofvarioustypesshowusthatbeforegovernmentsexist，memorialcustomsrecognizeprivateclaimsandjustifymaintenanceofthem。Codesoflawindependentlyevolvedbydifferentnations，agreeinforbiddingcertaintrespassesonthepersons，properties，andlibertiesofcitizens;andtheircorrespondencesimply，notanartificialsourceforindividualrights，butanaturalsource。Alongwithsocialdevelopment，theformulatinginlawoftherightspre—establishedbycustom，becomesmoredefiniteandelaborate。
Atthesametime，Governmentundertakestoanincreasingextentthebusinessofenforcingthem。Whileithasbeenbecomingabetterprotector，Governmenthasbeenbecominglessaggressivehasmoreandmorediminisheditsintrusionsonmen’sspheresofprivateaction。And，lastly，asinpasttimeslawswereavowedlymodifiedtofitbetterwithcurrentideasofequity;sonow，law—reformersareguidedbyideasofequitywhicharenotderivedfromlawbuttowhichlawhastoconform。
Here，then，wehaveapolitico—ethicaltheoryjustifiedalikebyanalysisandbyhistory。Whathaveweagainstit？A
fashionablecounter—theorywhichprovestobeunjustifiable。Ontheonehand，whilewefindthatindividuallifeandsociallifebothimplymaintenanceofthenaturalrelationbetweeneffortsandbenefits;wealsofindthatthisnaturalrelation，recognizedbeforeGovernmentexisted，hasbeenallalongassertingandre—assertingitself，andobtainingbetterrecognitionincodesoflawandsystemsofethics。Ontheotherhand，thosewho，denyingnaturalrights，committhemselvestotheassertionthatrightsareartificiallycreatedbylaw，arenotonlyflatlycontradictedbyfacts，buttheirassertionisself—destructive：theendeavourtosubstantiateit，whenchallenged，involvestheminmanifoldabsurdities。
Noristhisall。There—institutionofavaguepopularconceptioninadefiniteformonascientificbasis，leadsustoarationalviewoftherelationbetweenthewillsofmajoritiesandminorities。Itturnsoutthatthoseco—operationsinwhichallcanvoluntarilyunite，andinthecaringonofwhichthewillofthemajorityisrightlysupreme，areco—operationsformaintainingtheconditionsrequisitetoindividualandsociallife。Defenceofthesocietyasawholeagainsteternalinvaders，hasforitsremoteendtopreserveeachcitizeninpossessionofsuchmeansashehasforsatisfyinghisdesires，andinpossessionofsuchlibertyashehasforgettingfurthermeans。
Anddefenceofeachcitizenagainstinternalinvaders，frommurderersdowntothosewhoinflictnuisancesontheirneighbours，hasobviouslythelikeend——anenddesiredbyeveryonesavethecanalanddisorderly。Henceitfollowsthatformaintenanceofthisvitalprinciple，alikeofindividuallifeandsociallife，subordinationofminoritytomajorityislegitimate;
asimplyingonlysuchatrenchingonthefreedomandpropertyofeach，asisrequisiteforthebetterprotectingofhisfreedomandproperty。Atthesametimeitfollowsthatsuchsubordinationisnotlegitimatebeyondthis;since，implyingasitdoesagreateraggressionupontheindividualthanisrequisiteforprotectinghim，itinvolvesabreachofthevitalprinciplewhichistobemaintained。
Thuswecomeroundagaintothepropositionthattheassumeddivinerightofparliaments，andtheimplieddivinerightofmajorities，aresuperstitions。WhilemenhaveabandonedtheoldtheoryrespectingthesourceofState—authority，theyhaveretainedabeliefinthatunlimitedextentofState—authoritywhichrightlyaccompaniedtheoldtheory，butdoesnotrightlyaccompanythenewone。Unrestrictedpoweroversubjects，rationallyascribedtotherulingmanwhenhewasheldtobeadeputy—god，isnowascribedtotherulingbody，thedeputy—godhoodofwhichnobodyasserts。
Opponentswill，possibly，contendthatdiscussionsabouttheoriginandlimitsofgovernmentalauthorityaremerepedantries。
"Government，"theymayperhapssay，"isboundtouseallthemeansithas，orcanget，forfurtheringthegeneralhappiness。
Itsaimmustbeutility;anditiswarrantedinemployingwhatevermeasuresareneedfulforachievingusefulends。Thewelfareofthepeopleisthesupremelaw;andlegislatorsarenottobedeterredfromobeyingthatlawbyquestionsconcerningthesourceandrangeoftheirpower。"Istherereallyanescapehere？
ormaythisopeningbeeffectuallyclosed？
Theessentialquestionraisedisthetruthoftheutilitariantheoryascommonlyheld;andtheanswerheretobegivenisthat，ascommonlyheld，itisnottrue。Alikebythestatementsofutilitarianmoralists，andbytheactsofpoliticiansknowinglyorunknowinglyfollowingtheirlead，itisimpliedthatutilityistobedirectlydeterminedbysimpleinspectionofthemediatefactsandestimationofprobableresults。Whereas，utilitarianismasrightlyunderstood，impliesguidancebythegeneralconclusionswhichanalysisofexperienceyields。"Goodandbadresultscannotbeaccidental，butmustbenecessaryconsequencesoftheconstitutionofthings;"anditis"thebusinessofMoralSciencetodeduce，fromthelawsoflifeandtheconditionsofexistence，whatkindsofactionnecessarilytendtoproducehappiness，andwhatkindstoproduceunhappiness。"（32*）Currentutilitarianspeculation，likecurrentpracticalpolitics，showsinadequateconsciousnessofnaturalcausation。Thehabitualthoughtisthat，intheabsenceofsomeobviousimpediment，thingscanbedonethiswayorthatway;andnoquestionisputwhetherthereiseitheragreementorconflictwiththenormalworkingofthings。
Theforegoingdiscussionshave，Ithink，shownthatthedictatesofutility，and，consequently，theproperactionsofgovernments，arenottobesettledbyinspectionoffactsonthesurface，andacceptanceoftheirprimafaciemeanings;butaretobesettledbyreferenceto，anddeductionfrom，fundamentalfacts。Thefundamentalfactstowhichallrationaljudgmentsofutilitymustgoback，arethefactsthatlifeconsistsin，andismaintainedby，certainactivities;andthatamongmeninasociety，theseactivities，necessarilybecomingmutuallylimited，aretobecarriedonbyeachwithinthelimitsthencearising，andnotcarriedonbeyondthoselimits：themaintenanceofthelimitsbecoming，byconsequence，thefunctionoftheagencywhichregulatessociety。Ifeach，havingfreedomtousehispowersuptotheboundsfixedbythelikefreedomofothers，obtainsfromhisfellow—menasmuchforhisservicesastheyfindthemworthincomparisonwiththeservicesofothers——ifcontractsuniformlyfulfilledbringtoeachthesharethusdetermined，andheisleftsecureinpersonandpossessionstosatisfyhiswantswiththeproceeds;thenthereismaintainedthevitalprinciplealikeofindividuallifeandofsociallife。Further，thereismaintainedthevitalprincipleofsocialprogress;inasmuchas，undersuchconditions，theindividualsofmostworthwillprosperandmultiplymorethanthoseoflessworth。Sothatutility，notasempiricallyestimatedbutasrationallydetermined，enjoinsthismaintenanceofindividualrights;and，byimplication，negativesanycoursewhichtraversesthem。
Here，then，wereachtheultimateinterdictagainstmeddlinglegislation。Reducedtoitslowestterms，everyproposaltointerferewithcitizens’activitiesfurtherthanbyenforcingtheirmutuallimitations，isaproposaltoimprovelifebybreakingthroughthefundamentalconditionstolife。Whensomearepreventedfrombuyingbeerthatothersmaybepreventedfromgettingdrunk，thosewhomakethelawassumethatmoregoodthanevilwillresultfrominterferencewiththenormalrelationbetweenconductandconsequences，alikeinthefewill—regulatedandthemanywell—regulated。Agovernmentwhichtakesfractionsoftheincomesofmultitudinouspeople，forthepurposeofsendingtothecoloniessomewhohavenotprosperedhere，orforbuildingbetterindustrialdwellings，orformakingpubliclibrariesandpublicmuseums，etc。，takesforgrantedthat，notonlyproximatelybutultimately，increasedgeneralhappinesswillresultfromtransgressingtheessentialrequirementtogeneralhappinesstherequirementthateachshallenjoyallthosemeanstohappinesswhichhisactions，carriedonwithoutaggression，havebroughthim。Inothercaseswedonotthusletthemediateblindustotheremote。Whenassertingthesacrednessofpropertyagainstprivatetransgressors，wedonotaskwhetherthebenefittoahungrymanwhotakesbreadfromabaker’sshop，isorisnotgreaterthantheinjuryinflictedonthebaker：weconsider，notthespecialeffects，butthegeneraleffectswhichariseifpropertyisinsecure。ButwhentheStateexactsfurtheramountsfromcitizens，orfurtherrestrainstheirliberties，weconsideronlythedirectandproximateeffects，andignoretheindirectanddistanteffectswhicharecausedwhentheseinvasionsofindividualrightsarecontinuallymultiplied。Wedonotseethatbyaccumulatedsmallinfractionsofthem，thevitalconditionsoflife，individualandsocial，cometobesoimperfectlyfulfilledthatthelifedecays。
Yetthedecaythuscausedbecomesmanifestwherethepolicyispushedtoanextreme。Anyonewhostudies，inthewritingsofMM。TaineanddeTocqueville，thestateofthingswhichprecededtheFrenchRevolution，willseethatthetremendouscatastrophecameaboutfromsoexcessivearegulationofmen’sactionsinalltheirdetails，andsuchanenormousdraftingawayoftheproductsoftheiractionstomaintaintheregulatingorganization，thatlifewasfastbecomingimpracticable。Theempiricalutilitarianismofthatday，liketheempiricalutilitarianismofourday，differedfromrationalutilitarianisminthis，thatineachsuccessivecaseitcontemplatedonlytheeffectsofparticularinterferencesontheactionsofparticularclassesofmen，andignoredtheeffectsproducedbyamultiplicityofsuchinterferencesonthelivesofmenatlarge。Andifweaskwhatthenmade，andwhatnowmakes，thiserrorpossible，wefindittobethepoliticalsuperstitionthatgovernmentalpowerissubjecttonorestraints。
Whenthat"divinity"which"dothhedgeaking，"andwhichhasleftaglamouraroundthebodyinheritinghispower，hasquitediedaway——whenitbeginstobeseenclearlythat，inapopularly—governednation，thegovernmentissimplyacommitteeofmanagement;itwillalsobeseenthatthiscommitteeofmanagementhasnointrinsicauthority。Theinevitableconclusionwillbethatitsauthorityisgivenbythoseappointingit;andhasjustsuchboundsastheychoosetoimpose。Alongwiththiswillgothefurtherconclusionthatthelawsitpassesarenotinthemselvessacred;butthatwhateversacrednesstheyhave，itisentirelyduetotheethicalsanction——anethicalsanctionwhich，aswefind，isderivablefromthelawsofhumanlifeascarriedonundersocialconditions。Andtherewillcomethecorollarythatwhentheyhavenotthisethicalsanctiontheyhavenosacredness，andmayrightlybechallenged。
ThefunctionofLiberalisminthepastwasthatofputtingalimittothepowersofkings。ThefunctionoftrueLiberalisminthefuturewillbethatofputtingalimittothepowersofParliaments。
NOTES：
1。Hobbes，CollectedWorks，Vol。iii，pp。112—3。
2。Ibid。，p。159。
3。Ibid。，p。130—1。
4。TheProvinceofJurisprudenceDetermined（secondedition），p。
241。
5。FortnightlyReviewin1880，vol。xxvii，p。322。
6。Bentham’sWorks，vol。1，p。301。
7。Prescott，ConquestofPeru，bk。i。，ch。i。
8。Harris，HighlandofAethiopia，ii。94。
9。Burton，MissiontoGelele，KingofDahome，i。p。226。
10。Bentham’sWorks，vol。ix，p。97。
11。Burchell，W。J。，TravelsintheInteriorofSouthernAfrica，vol。i，p。544。
12。ArboussetandDaumas，VoyageofExploration，p。27。
13。Thompson，G。，TravelsandAdventuresinSouthernAfrica，vol。
ii，p。30。
14。Thompson，G。A。，Alcedo’sGeographicalandHistoricalDictionaryofAmerica，vol。i，p。405。
15。Mitchell，Alex。，SiberianOverlandRoute，p。248。
16。Brooke，C。，TenYearsinSardwak，vol。i，p。129。
17。Ellis，HistoryofMadagascar，vol。i，377。
18。Raffles，SirT。S。，HistoryofJava，vol。i，274。
19。Marsden，W。，HistoryofSumatra，p。217。
20。Beecham，J。，AshanteandtheGoldCoast，p。90。
21。Schoolcraft，H。R。，ExpeditiontotheSourcesoftheMississippiRiver，v。，177。
22。Earl’sKolff’sVoyageoftheDomga，p。161。
23。"TheMethodsofJurisprudence：anIntroductoryLectureatUniversityCollege，London，"October31，1882。
24。Tennant，Ceylon：anAccountoftheIsland，etc。，ii，440。
25。Bonwick，J。，DailyLifeandtheOriginoftheTasmanians，83。
26。Polynesia，p。86。
27。VoyagesoftheAdventureandBeagle，3vols。
28。Wallace，A。R。，TravelsonAmazonandRioNegro，p。499。
29。Schoolcraft，ExpeditiontotheSourceoftheMississippi，v。，177。
30。B。F。Hartshorne，FortnightlyReview，March，1876。SeealsoH。C。Sirr，CeylonandtheCeyonese，ii。219。
31。AddressofC。B。Vignoles，Esq。，F。R。S。，onhisElectionasPresidentoftheInstitutionofCivilEngineers，Session，1869—70，p。53。
32。DataofEthics，section21。Seealsosections56—62。
POSTSCRIPT
"DoIexpectthisdoctrinetomeetwithanyconsiderableacceptance？"IwishIcouldsay，yes;butunhappilyvariousreasonsobligemetoconcludethatonlyhereandthereasolitarycitizenmayhavehispoliticalcreedmodified。Ofthesereasonsthereisonefromwhichalltheothersoriginate。
Thisessentialreasonisthattherestrictionofgovernmentalpowerwithinthelimitsassigned，isappropriatetotheindustrialtypeofsocietyonly;and，whilewhollyincongruouswiththemilitanttypeofsociety，ispartiallyincongruouswiththatsemi—militantsemi—industrialtype，whichnowcharacterizesadvancednations。Ateverystageofsocialevolutiontheremustexistsubstantialagreementbetweenpracticesandbeliefs——realbeliefsImean，notnominalones。Lifecanbecarriedononlybytheharmonizingofthoughtsandacts。Eithertheconductrequiredbycircumstancesmustmodifythebeliefstofitit;orelsethechangedbeliefsmusteventuallymodifytheconduct。
Henceifthemaintenanceofsociallifeunderonesetofconditions，necessitatesextremesubordinationtoarulerandentirefaithinhim，therewillbeestablishedatheorythatthesubordinationandthefaithareproper——nayimperative。
Converselyif，underotherconditions，greatsubjectionofcitizenstogovernmentisnolongerneedfulforpreservationofthenationallife——if，contrariwise，thenationallifebecomeslargerinamountandhigherinqualityasfastascitizensgainincreasedfreedomofaction;therecomesaprogressivemodificationoftheirpoliticaltheory，havingtheresultofdiminishingtheirfaithingovernmentalaction，increasingtheirtendencytoquestiongovernmentalauthority，andleadingtheminmorenumerouscasestoresistgovernmentalpower：involving，eventually，anestablisheddoctrineoflimitation。
Thusitisnottobeexpectedthatcurrentopinionrespectinggovernmentalauthority，canatpresentbemodifiedtoanygreatextent。Butletuslookatthenecessitiesofthecasemoreclosely。
Manifestlythesuccessofanarmydependsverymuchonthefaithofthesoldiersintheirgeneral：disbeliefinhisabilitywillgofartowardsparalysingtheminbattle;whileabsoluteconfidenceinhimwillmakethemfulfiltheirrespectivepartswithcourageandenergy。If，asinthenormally—developedmilitanttypeofsociety，therulerinpeaceandtheleaderinwarareoneandthesame，thisconfidenceinhimextendsfrommilitaryactiontocivilaction;andthesociety，inlargemeasureidenticalwiththearmy，willinglyacceptshisjudgmentsaslaw—giver。Evenwherethecivilhead，ceasingtobethemilitaryhead，doeshisgeneralshipbydeputy，therestillclingstohimthetraditionalfaith。
Similarlywiththewillingnesstoobey。Otherthingsequalanarmyofinsubordinatesoldiersfailsbeforeanarmyofsubordinatesoldiers。Thosewhoseobediencetotheirleaderisperfectandprompt，areobviouslymorelikelytosucceedinbattlethanarethosewhodisregardthecommandsissuedtothem。
Andaswiththearmysowiththesocietyasawhole;successinwarmustlargelydependonthatconformitytotheruler’swillwhichbringsmenandmoneywhenwanted，andadjustsallconducttohisneeds。
Thusbysurvivalofthefittest，themilitanttypeofsocietybecomescharacterizedbyprofoundfaithinthegoverningpower，joinedwithaloyaltycausingsubmissiontoitinallmatterswhatever。Andtheremusttendtobeestablishedamongthosewhospeculateaboutpoliticalaffairsinamilitantsociety，atheorygivingformtotheneedfulideasandfeelings;accompaniedbyassertionsthatthelaw—giverifnotdivineinnatureisdivinelydirected，andthatunlimitedobediencetohimisdivinelyordered。Changeintheideasandfeelingswhichthusbecomecharacteristicofthemilitantformoforganization，cantakeplaceonlywherecircumstancesfavourdevelopmentoftheindustrialformoforganization。Beingcarriedonbyvoluntaryco—operationinsteadofbycompulsoryco—operation，industriallifeaswenowknowit，habituatesmentoindependentactivities，leadsthemtoenforcetheirownclaimswhilerespectingtheclaimsofothers，strengthenstheconsciousnessofpersonalrights，andpromptsthemtoresistexcessesofgovernmentalcontrol。Butsincethecircumstanceswhichrenderwarlessfrequentarisebutslowly，andsincethemodificationsofnaturecausedbythetransitionfromalifepredominantlymilitanttoalifepredominantlyindustrialcanthereforegoononlylittlebylittle，ithappensthattheoldsentimentsandideasgiveplacetonewones，bysmalldegreesonly。Andthereareseveralreasonswhythetransitionnotonlyis，butoughttobe，gradual。Herearesomeofthem。
Intheprimitivemanandinmanbutlittlecivilized，theredoesnotexistthenaturerequiredforextensivevoluntaryco—operations。Effortswillinglyunitedwiththoseofothersforacommonadvantage，imply，iftheundertakingislarge，aperseverancehedoesnotpossess。Moreover，wherethebenefitstobeachievedaredistantandunfamiliar，asaremanyforwhichmennow—a—dayscombine，thereneedsastrengthofconstructiveimaginationnottobefoundinthemindsoftheuncivilized。Andyetagain，greatcombinationsofaprivatekindforwholesaleproduction，forlargeenterprises，andforotherpurposes，requireagraduatedsubordinationoftheunitedworkers——agraduatedsubordinationsuchasthatwhichmilitancyproduces。Inotherwords，thewaytothedevelopedindustrialtypeaswenowknowit，isthroughthemilitanttype;which，bydisciplinegeneratesinlongagesthepowerofcontinuousapplication，thewillingnesstoactunderdirection（nownolongercoercivebutagreedtoundercontract）andthehabitofachievinglargeresultsbyorganizations。
Consequently，duringlongstagesofsocialevolutionthereneeds，forthemanagementofallmattersbutthesimplest，agovernmentalpowergreatindegreeandwideinrange，withacorrelativefaithinitandobediencetoit。Hencethefactthat，astherecordsofearlycivilizationsshowus，andasweareshownintheEastatpresent，largeundertakingscanbeachievedonlybyState—action。Andhencethefactthatonlylittlebylittlecanvoluntaryco—operationreplacecompulsoryco—operation，andrightlybringaboutacorrelativedecreaseoffaithingovernmentalabilityandauthority。
Chiefly，however，themaintenanceofthisfaithisnecessitatedbythemaintenanceoffitnessforwar。Thisinvolvescontinuanceofsuchconfidenceintherulingagency，andsuchsubordinationtoit，asmayenableittowieldalltheforcesofthesocietyonoccasionsofattackordefence;andtheremustsurviveapoliticaltheoryjustifyingthefaithandtheobedience。Whiletheirsentimentsandideasareofkindswhichperpetuallyendangerpeace，itisrequisitethatmenshouldhavesuchbeliefintheauthorityofgovernmentasshallgiveitadequatecoercivepoweroverthemforwarpurposes——abeliefinitsauthoritywhichinevitably，atthesametime，givesitcoercivepoweroverthemforotherpurposes。
Thus，assaidatfirst，thefundamentalreasonfornotexpectingmuchacceptanceofthedoctrinesetforth，isthatwehaveatpresentbutpartiallyemergedfromthemilitantregimeandhavebutpartiallyenteredonthatindustrialregimetowhichthisdoctrineisproper。
Solongasthereligionofenmitypredominatesoverthereligionofamity，thecurrentpoliticalsuperstitionmustholditsground。WhilethroughoutEurope，theearlycultureoftherulingclassesisonewhicheverydayoftheweekholdsupforadmirationthosewhoinancienttimesachievedthegreatestfeatsinbattle，andonlyonSundayrepeatstheinjunctiontoputupthesword——whiletheserulingclassesaresubjecttoamoraldisciplineconsistingofsix—seventhspaganexampleandone—seventhChristianprecept;thereisnolikelihoodthattherewillarisesuchinternationalrelationsasmaymakeadeclineingovernmentalpowerpracticable，andacorrespondingmodificationofpoliticaltheoryacceptable。WhileamongourselvestheadministrationofcolonialaffairsissuchthatnativetribeswhoretaliateonEnglishmenbywhomtheyhavebeeninjured，arepunished，notontheirownsavageprincipleoflifeforlife，butontheimprovedcivilizedprincipleofwholesalemassacreinreturnforsinglemurder，thereislittlechancethatapoliticaldoctrineconsistentonlywithunaggressiveconductwillgaincurrency。Whilethecreedmenprofessissointerpretedthatoneofthemwhoathomeaddressesmissionarymeetings，seeks，whenabroad，tofomentaquarrelwithanadjacentpeoplewhomhewishestosubjugate，andthenreceivespublichonoursafterhisdeath，itisnotlikelythattherelationsofoursocietytoothersocietieswillbecomesuchthattherecanspreadtoanyextentthatdoctrineoflimitedgovernmentalfunctionsaccompanyingthediminishedgovernmentalauthoritypropertoapeacefulstate。Anationwhich，interestedinecclesiasticalsquabblesabouttheceremoniesofitshumanecult，caressolittleabouttheessenceofthatcultthatfillibusteringinitscoloniesreceivesapplauseratherthanreprobation，andisnotdenouncedevenbythepriestsofitsreligionoflove，isanationwhichmustcontinuetosufferfrominternalaggressions，alikeofindividualsononeanotherandoftheStateonindividuals。Itisimpossibletounitetheblessingsofequityathomewiththecommissionofinequitiesabroad。
Ofcourse，therewillarisethequestion——Why，then，enunciateandemphasizeatheoryatvariancewiththetheoryadaptedtoourpresentstate？
Beyondthegeneralreplythatitisthedutyofeveryonewhoregardsadoctrineastrueandimportant，todowhathecantowardsdiffusingit，leavingtheresulttobewhatitmaybe，thereareseveralmorespecialreplies，eachofwhichissufficient。
Inthefirstplaceanideal，farinadvanceofpracticabilitythoughitmaybe，isalwaysneedfulforrightfulguidance。If，amidallthosecompromiseswhichthecircumstancesofthetimesnecessitate，orarethoughttonecessitate，thereexistnotrueconceptionsofbetterandworseinsocialorganization——ifnothingbeyondtheexigenciesofthemomentareattendedto，andtheproximatelybestishabituallyidentifiedwiththeultimatelybest;therecannotbeanytrueprogress。Howeverdistantmaybethegoal，andhoweverofteninterveningobstaclesmaynecessitatedeviationinourcoursetowardsit，itisobviouslyrequisitetoknowwhereaboutsitlies。
Again，whilesomethinglikethepresentdegreeofsubjectionoftheindividualtotheState，andsomethinglikethecurrentpoliticaltheoryadaptedtoit，mayremainneedfulinpresenceofexistinginternationalrelations;itisbynomeansneedfulthatthissubjectionshouldbemadegreaterandtheadaptedtheorystrengthened。Inourdaysofactivephilanthropy，hostsofpeopleeagertoachievebenefitsfortheirlessfortunatefellowsbytheshortestmethods，arebusilyoccupiedindevelopingadministrativearrangementsofakindpropertoalowertypeofsociety——arebringingaboutretrogressionwhileaimingatprogression。Thenormaldifficultiesinthewayofadvancearesufficientlygreat，anditislamentablethattheyshouldbemadegreater。Hence，somethingwellworthdoingmaybedone，ifphilanthropistscanbeshownthattheyareinmanycasesinsuringthefutureill—beingofmenwhileeagerlypursuingtheirpresentwell—being。
Chiefly，however，itisimportanttoimpressonallthegreattruth，atpresentbutlittlerecognized，thatasociety’sinternalandeternalpoliciesaresoboundtogether，thattherecannotbeanessentialimprovementoftheonewithoutanessentialimprovementoftheother。Ahigherstandardofinternationaljusticemustbehabituallyactedupon，beforetherecanbeconformitytoahigherstandardofjusticeinournationalarrangements。Theconvictionthatadependenceofthiskindexists，coulditbediffusedamongcivilizedpeoples，wouldgreatlycheckaggressivebehaviourtowardsoneanother;and，bydoingthis，woulddiminishthecoercivenessoftheirgovernmentalsystemswhileappropriatelychangingtheirpoliticaltheories。