Theprelatesandtheirnumerousgendarmerieofmonkswhichgrewwiththespreadofpoliticalandreligiousbaiting，weretheobjectsofhatrednotonlyofthepeoplebutalsoofthenobility。Beingdirectlyundertheempire，theprelateswereinthewayoftheprinces。Thefastlivingofthecorpulentbishopsandabbotswiththeirarmyofmonks，rousedtheenvyofthenobilityandtheindignationofthepeoplewhoboretheburden。Hatredwasintensifiedbythefactthatthebehaviouroftheclergywasaslapinthefaceoftheirownpreaching。
　　Theplebeianfactionoftheclergyconsistedofpreachers，ruralandurban。Thepreacherswereoutsidethefeudalhierarchyofthechurchandparticipatedinnoneofitsriches。Theiractivitieswerelessrigorouslycontrolledand，importantastheywereforthechurch，theywereforthemomentfarlessindispensablethanthepoliceservicesofthebarrackedmonks。Consequently，theywerepaidmuchlessthanthemonks，andtheirprebendswerefarfromlucrative。Beingofamiddle—classorplebeianorigin，theywerenearertothelifeofthemasses，thusbeingabletoretainmiddle—classandplebeiansympathies，inspiteoftheirstatusasclergy。Whiletheparticipationofthemonksinthemovementsoftheirtimewastheexception，thatoftheplebeianclergywastherule。Theygavethemovementitstheoristsandideologists，andmanyofthem，representativesoftheplebeiansandpeasants，diedonthescaffold。Thehatredofthemassesfortheclergyseldomtouchedthisgroup。
　　Whattheemperorwastotheprincesandnobility，thepopewastothehigherandlowerclergy。Astheemperorreceivedthe"commonpenny，"
　　theimperialtaxes，sothepopewaspaidthegeneralchurchtaxes，outofwhichhedefrayedtheexpensesoftheluxuriousRomancourt。InnocountrywerehistaxescollectedwithsuchconscientiousnessandrigourasinGermany，duetothepowerandthenumberoftheclergy。Theannateswerecollectedwithparticularseveritywhenabishopricwastobecomevacant。Withthegrowthofthecourt’sdemands，newmeansforraisingrevenueswereinvented，suchasthetrafficinrelicsandindulgences，jubileecollections，etc。
　　largesumsofmoneywerethusyearlytransportedfromGermanytoRome，andtheincreasedpressurefannednotonlythehatredtowardstheclergy，butitalsoarousednationalfeelings，particularlyamongthenobility，thethenmostnationalclass。
　　Inthecities，thegrowthofcommerceandhandicraftproducedthreedistinctgroupsoutoftheoriginalcitizenryofmedievaltimes。
　　Thecitypopulationwasheadedbythepatricianfamilies，theso—called"honourables。"Thoseweretherichestfamilies。Theyalonesatinthecouncil，andheldanthecityoffices。Theynotonlyadministeredalltherevenuesofthecity，buttheyalsoconsumedthem。Strongintheirrichesandtheirancientaristocraticstatus，recognisedbyemperorandempire，theyexploitedineverypossiblewaythecitycommunityaswellasthepeasantsbelongingtothecity。Theypractisedusuryingrainandmoney;theysecuredforthemselvesmonopoliesofvariouskinds;theygraduallydeprivedthecommunityofeveryrighttousethecityforestsandmeadows，andusedthemdirectlyfortheirownprivatebenefit。Theyimposedroad，bridgeandgatepaymentsandotherduties;theysoldtradeandguildprivileges，masterandcitizenrights;andtheytradedwithjustice。Thepeasantsofthecityareaweretreatedbythemwithnomoreconsiderationthanbythenobilityandtheclergy。Onthecontrary，thecitymagistratesandbailiffs，mostlypatricians，broughtintothevillages，togetherwitharistocraticrigidityandavarice，acertainbureaucraticpunctualityincollectingduties。Thecityrevenuesthuscollectedwereadministeredinamostoptionalfashion;citybookkeepingwasasneglectfulandconfusedaspossible;defraudationandtreasurydeficitsweretheorderoftheday。Howeasyitwasforacomparativelysmallcaste，surroundedbyprivileges，andheldtogetherbyfamilytiesandcommunityofinterests，toenrichitselfenormouslyoutofthecityrevenues，willbeunderstoodwhenoneconsidersthenumerousfraudsandswindleswhich1848witnessedinmanycityadministrations。
　　Thepatricianstookcaretomakedormanttherightsofthecitycommunityeverywhere，particularlyasregardsfinance。Later，whentheextortionsofthesegentlemenbecametoosevere，thecommunitiesstartedamovementtobringatleastthecityadministrationundertheircontrol。
　　Inmostcitiestheyactuallyregainedtheirrights，butdue，ontheonehand，totheeternalsquabblesbetweentheguildsand，ontheother，tothetenacityofthepatriciansandtheirprotectionbytheempireandthegovernmentsofthealliedcities，thepatriciancouncilmemberssoonrestoredbyshrewdnessorforcetheirdominanceinthecouncils。AtthebeginningoftheSixteenthCentury，thecommunitiesofallthecitieswereagainintheopposition。
　　Thecityoppositionagainstthepatricianswasdividedintotwofactionswhichstoodoutveryclearlyinthecourseofthepeasantwar。
　　Themiddle—classopposition，thepredecessorofourmodernliberals，embracedtherichermiddle—class，themiddle—classofmoderatemeans，andamoreorlessappreciablesectionofthepoorerelements，accordingtolocalconditions。Thisoppositiondemandedcontroloverthecityadministrationandparticipationinthelegislativepowereitherthroughageneralassemblageofthecommunityorthroughrepresentatives（bigcouncil，citycommittee）。
　　Further，itdemandedmodificationofthepatricianpolicyoffavouringafewfamilieswhichweregaininganexceptionalpositioninsidethepatriciangroup。Asidefromthis，themiddle—classoppositiondemandedthefillingofsomecouncilofficesbycitizensoftheirowngroup。Thisparty，joinedhereandtherebydissatisfiedelementsofimpoverishedpatricians，hadalargemajorityinalltheordinarygeneralassembliesofthecommunityandintheguilds。Theadherentsofthecouncilandthemoreradicaloppositionformedtogetheronlyaminorityamongtherealcitizens。
　　Weshallseehow，inthecourseoftheSixteenthCentury，thismoderate，"law—abiding，"well—offandintelligentoppositionplayedexactlythesameroleandexactlywiththesamesuccessasitsheir，theconstitutionalpartyinthemovementsof1848and1849。Themiddle—classoppositionhadstillanotherobjectofheatedprotest：theclergy，whoseloosewayoflivingandluxurioushabitsarouseditsbitterscorn。Themiddle—classoppositiondemandedmeasuresagainstthescandalousbehaviourofthoseillustriouspeople。Itdemandedthattheinnerjurisdictionoftheclergyanditsrighttolevytaxesshouldbeabolished，andthatthenumberofthemonksshouldbelimited。
　　Theplebeianoppositionconsistedofruinedmembersofthemiddle—classandthatmassofthecitypopulationwhichpossessednocitizenshiprights：thejourneymen，thedaylabourers，andthenumerousbeginningsofthelumpenproletariatwhichcanbefoundevenintheloweststagesofdevelopmentofcitylife。Thislow—gradeproletariatis，generallyspeaking，aphenomenonwhich，inamoreorlessdevelopedform，canbefoundinallthephasesofsocietyhithertoobserved。Thenumberofpeoplewithoutadefiniteoccupationandastabledomicilewasatthattimegraduallybeingaugmentedbythedecayoffeudalisminasocietyinwhicheveryoccupation，everyrealmoflife，wasentrenchedbehindanumberofprivileges。InnomoderncountrywasthenumberofvagabondssogreatasinGermany，inthefirsthalfoftheSixteenthCentury。Oneportionofthesetrampsjoinedthearmyinwar—time，anotherbeggeditswaythroughthecountry，athirdsoughttoekeoutameagrelivingasday—labourersinthosebranchesofworkwhichwerenotunderguildjurisdiction。Allthreegroupsplayedaroleinthepeasantwar;thefirstinthearmyoftheprincestowhomthepeasantsuccumbed，thesecondintheconspiraciesandinthetroopsofthepeasantswhereitsdemoralisinginfluencewasmanifestedeverymoment;thethird，inthestrugglesofthepartiesinthecities。Itmustbeborneinmind，however，thatalargeportionofthisclass，namely，theonelivinginthecities，stillretainedaconsiderablefoundationofpeasantnature，andhadnotdevelopedthatdegreeofvenalityanddegradationwhichcharacterisethemoderncivilisedlow—gradeproletariat。
　　Itisevidentthattheplebeianoppositionofthecitieswasofamixednature。Itcombinedtheruinedelementsoftheold。feudalandguildsocietieswiththebuddingproletarianelementsofacomingmodernbourgeoissociety;ontheonehand，impoverishedguildcitizens，who，duetotheirprivileges，stillclungtotheexistingmiddle—classorder，ontheotherhand，drivenoutpeasantsandex—officerswhowereyetunabletobecomeproletarians。Betweenthesetwogroupswerethejourneymen，forthetimebeingoutsideofficialsocietyandsoclosetothestandardoflivingoftheproletariataswaspossibleundertheindustryofthetimesandtheguildprivileges，but，duetothesameprivileges，almostallprospectivemiddle—classmasterartisans。Thepartyaffiliationsofthismixturewere，naturally，highlyuncertain，andvaryingfromlocalitytolocality。Beforethepeasantwar，theplebeianoppositionappearedinthepoliticalstruggles，notasaparty，butasashouting，rapacioustail—endtothemiddle—classopposition，amobthatcouldbeboughtandsoldforafewbarrelsofwine。
　　Itwastherevoltofthepeasantsthattransformed;hemintoaparty，andeventhentheywerealmosteverywheredependentuponthepeasants，bothindemandsandinaction——astrikingproofofthefactthatthecitiesofhattimeweregreatlydependentuponthecountry。Insofarastheplebeianoppositionactedindependently，itdemandedextensionofcitytradeprivilegesovertheruraldistricts，anditdidliketoseethecityrevenuescurtailedbyabolitionoffeudalburdensintheruralareabelongingtothecity，etc。Inbrief，insofarasitappearedindependently，itwasreactionary。
　　Itsubmittedtoitsownmiddle—classelements，andthusformedacharacteristicprologuetothetragiccomedystagedbythemodernpetty—bourgeoisieinthelastthreeyearsundertheheadofdemocracy。
　　OnlyinThuringiaandinafewotherlocalitieswastheplebeianfactionofthecitycarriedawaybythegeneralstormtosuchanextentthatitsembryoproletarianelementsforabrieftimegainedtheupperhandoveralltheotherfactorsofthemovement。ThistookplaceunderthedirectinfluenceofMuenzerinThuringia，andofhisdisciplesinotherplaces。Thisepisode，formingtheclimaxoftheentirepeasantwar，andgroupedaroundthemagnificentfigureofThomasMuenzer，wasofverybriefduration。Itiseasilyunderstoodwhytheseelementscollapsemorequicklythananyother，whytheirmovementbearsanoutspoken，fantasticstamp，andwhytheexpressionoftheirdemandsmustnecessarilybeextremelyindefinite。
　　Itwasthisgroupthatfoundleastfirmgroundinthethenexistingconditions。
　　Atthebottomofalltheclasses，savethelastone，wasthehugeexploitedmassofthenation，thepeasants。Itwasthepeasantwhocarriedtheburdenofalltheotherstrataofsociety：princes，officialdom，nobility，clergy，patriciansandmiddle—class。Whetherthepeasantwasthesubjectofaprince，animperialbaron，abishop，amonasteryoracity，hewaseverywheretreatedasabeastofburden，andworse。Ifhewasaserf，hewasentirelyatthemercyofhismaster。Ifhewasabondsman，thelegaldeliveriesstipulatedbyagreementweresufficienttocrushhim;
　　eventheywerebeingdailyincreased。Mostofhistime，hehadtoworkonhismaster’sestate。Outofthatwhichheearnedinhisfewfreehours，hehadtopaytithes，dues，groundrents，wartaxes，landtaxes，imperialtaxes，andotherpayments。Hecouldneithermarrynordiewithoutpayingthemaster。Asidefromhisregularworkforthemaster，hehadtogatherlitter，pickstrawberries，pickbilberries，collectsnail—shells，drivethegameforthehunting，chopwood，andsoon。Fishingandhuntingbelongedtothemaster。Thepeasantsawhiscropdestroyedbywildgame。Thecommunitymeadowsandwoodsofthepeasantshadalmosteverywherebeenforciblytakenawaybythemasters。Andinthesamemannerasthemasterreignedoverthepeasant’sproperty，heextendedhiswilfulnessoverhisperson，hiswifeanddaughters。Hepossessedtherightofthefirstnight。Wheneverhepleased，hethrewthepeasantintothetower，wheretherackwaitedforhimjustassurelyastheinvestigatingattorneywaitsforthecriminalinourtimes。Wheneverhepleased，hekilledhimororderedhimbeheaded。
　　NoneoftheinstructivechaptersoftheCarolinawhichspeaksof"cuttingofears，""cuttingofnoses，""blinding，""choppingoffingers，""beheading，"
　　"breakingonthewheel，""burning，""pinchingwithburningtongs，""quartering，"
　　etc。，wasleftunpractisedbythegraciouslordandmasterathispleasure。
　　Whocoulddefendthepeasant？Thecourtsweremannedbybarons，clergymen，patricians，orjurists，whoknewverywellforwhattheywerebeingpaid……Notinvaindidalltheofficialestatesoftheempireliveontheexploitationofthepeasants。
　　Incensedaswerethepeasantsunderterrificpressure，itwasstilldifficulttoarousethemtorevolt。Beingspreadoverlargeareas，itwashighlydifficultforthemtocometocommonunderstanding;theoldhabitofsubmissioninheritedfromgenerationtogeneration，thelackofpractiseintheuseofarmsinmanyregions，theunequaldegreeofexploitationdependingonthepersonalityofthemaster，allcombinedtokeepthepeasantquiet。Itisforthesereasonsthat，althoughlocalinsurrectionsofpeasantscanbefoundinmediaevaltimesinlargenumbers，notonegeneralnationalpeasantrevolt，leastofallinGermany，canbeobservedbeforethepeasantwar。Moreover，thepeasantsalonecouldnevermakearevolutionaslongastheywereconfrontedbytheorganisedpoweroftheprinces，nobilityandthecities。Onlybyallyingthemselveswithotherclassescouldtheyhaveachanceofvictory，buthowcouldtheyhavealliedthemselveswithotherclasseswhentheywereequallyexploitedbyall？
　　AtthebeginningoftheSixteenthCenturythevariousgroupsoftheempire，princes，nobility，clergy，patricians，middle—class，plebeiansandpeasantsformedahighlycomplicatedmasswiththemostvariedrequirementscrossingeachotherindifferentdirections。Everygroupwasinthewayoftheother，andstoodcontinuallyinanovertorcovertstrugglewitheveryothergroup。Asplittingoftheentirenationintotwomajorcamps，aswitnessedinFranceattheoutbreakofthefirstrevolution，andasatpresentmanifestonahigherstageofdevelopmentinthemostprogressivecountries，wasundersuchconditionsarankimpossibility。Somethingapproachingsuchdivisiontookplaceonlywhentheloweststratumofthepopulation，theoneexploitedbyalltherest，arose，namely，theplebeiansandthepeasants。Thetangleofinterests，viewsandendeavoursofthattimewillbeeasilyunderstoodwhenonerememberswhataconfusionwasmanifestedinthelasttwoyearsinasocietyfarlesscomplicatedandconsistingonlyoffeudalnobility，bourgeoisie，petty—bourgeoisie，peasantsandproletariat。
　　[Topart2]
　　ThePeasantWarinGermany：Chapter2FrederickEngels’
　　THEPEASANTWARINGERMANYCHAPTER2
　　TheMainOppositionGroupsandtheirProgrammes;LutherandMuenzerThegroupingofthenumerousandvariegatedgroupsintobiggerunitswasatthattimemadeimpossiblebydecentralisation，bylocalandprovincialindependence，byindustrialandcommercialisolationoftheprovincesfromeachother，andbypoormeansofcommunication。Thisgroupingdevelopsonlywiththegeneralspreadofrevolutionary，religiousandpoliticalideas，inthecourseoftheReformation。Thevariousgroupsofthepopulationwhicheitheracceptoropposethoseideas，concentratethenation，veryslowlyandonlyapproximatelyindeed，intothreelargecamps，thereactionaryorCatholic，thereformistmiddle—classorLutheran，andtherevolutionaryelements。Ifwediscoverlittlelogiceveninthisgreatdivisionofthenation，ifthefirsttwocampsincludepartlythesameelements，itisduetothefactthatmostoftheofficialgroupingsbroughtoverfromtheMiddl...剩余内容请长按扫描二维码或下载丁香书院APP继续免费看：

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