CHAPTERI。SCIENTIFICANDPOLITICALREVOLUTIONS
　　1。ClassificationofRevolutions2。ScientificRevolutions3。PoliticalRevolutions4。TheresultsofPoliticalRevolutionsCHAPTERII。RELIGIOUSREVOLUTIONS
　　1。TheimportanceofthestudyofReligiousRevolutionsinrespectofthecomprehensionofthegreatPoliticalRevolutions2。ThebeginningsoftheReformationanditsfirstdisciples3。RationalvalueofthedoctrinesoftheReformation4。PropagationoftheReformation5。Conflictbetweendifferentreligiousbeliefs。Theimpossibilityoftolerance6。TheresultsofReligiousRevolutionsCHAPTERIII。THEACTIONOFGOVERNMENTSINREVOLUTIONS
　　1。ThefeebleresistanceofGovernmentsintimeofRevolution2。HowtheresistanceofGovernmentsmayovercomeRevolution3。RevolutionseffectedbyGovernments。Examples：China，Turkey，&c4。SocialelementswhichsurvivethechangesofGovernmentafterRevolutionCHAPTERIV。THEPARTPLAYEDBYTHEPEOPLEINREVOLUTIONS
　　1。ThestabilityandmalleabilityOfthenationalmind2。HowthePeopleregardsRevolution3。ThesupposedpartofthePeopleduringRevolution4。ThepopularentityanditsconstituentelementsBOOKII
　　THEFORMSOFMENTALITYPREVALENTDURINGREVOLUTION
　　CHAPTERI。INDIVIDUALVARIATIONSOFCHARACTERINTIMEOF
　　REVOLUTION
　　1。TransformationsofPersonality2。ElementsofcharacterpredominantintimeofRevolutionCHAPTERII。THEMYSTICMENTALITYANDTHEJACOBINMENTALITY
　　1。ClassificationofmentalitiespredominantintimeofRevolution2。TheMysticMentality3。TheJacobinMentalityCHAPTERIII。THEREVOLUTIONARYANDCRIMINALMENTALITIES
　　1。TheRevolutionaryMentality2。TheCriminalMentalityCHAPTERIV。THEPSYCHOLOGYOFREVOLUTIONARYCROWDS
　　1。Generalcharacteristicsofthecrowd2。Howthestabilityoftheracialmindlimitstheoscillationsofthemindofthecrowd3。TheroleoftheleaderinRevolutionaryMovementsCHAPTERV。THEPSYCHOLOGYOFTHEREVOLUTIONARYASSEMBLIES
　　1。PsychologicalcharacteristicsofthegreatRevolutionaryAssemblies2。ThePsychologyoftheRevolutionaryClubs3。AsuggestedexplanationoftheprogressiveexaggerationofsentimentsinassembliesPARTII
　　BOOKI
　　THEORIGINSOFTHEFRENCHREVOLUTION
　　CHAPTER1。THEOPINIONSOFHISTORIANSCONCERNINGTHEFRENCH
　　REVOLUTION
　　1。TheHistoriansoftheRevolution2。ThetheoryofFatalisminrespectoftheRevolution3。ThehesitationofrecentHistoriansoftheRevolution4。ImpartialityinHistoryCHAPTERII。THEPSYCHOLOGICALFOUNDATIONSOFTHEANCIENREGIME
　　1。TheAbsoluteMonarchyandtheBasisoftheAncienRegime2。TheinconveniencesoftheAncienRegime3。LifeundertheAncienRegime4。EvolutionofMonarchicalfeelingduringtheRevolutionCHAPTERIII。MENTALANARCHYATTHETIMEOFTHEREVOLUTION
　　ANDTHEINFLUENCEATTRIBUTEDTOTHEPHILOSOPHERS
　　1。OriginandPropagationofRevolutionaryIdeas2。ThesupposedinfluenceofthePhilosophersoftheeighteenthcenturyupontheGenesisoftheRevolution。
　　TheirdislikeofDemocracy3。ThephilosophicalideasoftheBourgeoisieatthetimeoftheRevolutionCHAPTERIV。PSYCHOLOGICALILLUSIONSRESPECTINGTHEFRENCH
　　REVOLUTION
　　1。IllusionsrespectingPrimitiveMan，thereturntotheStateofNature，andthePsychologyofthePeople2。IllusionsrespectingthepossibilityofseparatingManfromhisPastandthepowerofTransformationattributedtotheLaw3。IllusionsrespectingtheTheoreticalValueofthegreatRevolutionaryPrinciplesBOOKII
　　THERATIONAL，AFFECTIVE，MYSTIC，ANDCOLLECTIVEINFLUENCESACTIVE
　　DURINGTHEREVOLUTION
　　CHAPTERI。THEPSYCHOLOGYOFTHECONSTITUENTASSEMBLY
　　1。PsychologicalinfluencesactiveduringtheFrenchRevolution2。DissolutionoftheAncienRegime。TheassemblingoftheStatesGeneral3。TheconstituentAssemblyCHAPTERII。THEPSYCHOLOGYOFTHELEGISLATIVEASSEMBLY
　　1。PoliticaleventsduringthelifeoftheLegislativeAssembly2。MentalcharacteristicsoftheLegislativeAssemblyCHAPTERIII。THEPSYCHOLOGYOFTHECONVENTION
　　1。TheLegendoftheConvention2。ResultsofthetriumphoftheJacobinReligion3。MentalcharacteristicsoftheConventionCHAPTERIV。THEGOVERNMENTOFTHECONVENTION
　　1。TheactivityoftheClubsandtheCommuneduringtheConvention2。TheGovernmentofFranceduringtheConvention：theTerror3。TheEndoftheConvention。TheBeginningsoftheDirectoryCHAPTERV。INSTANCESOFREVOLUTIONARYVIOLENCE
　　1。PsychologicalCausesofRevolutionaryViolence2。TheRevolutionaryTribunals3。TheTerrorintheProvincesCHAPTERVI。THEARMIESOFTHEREVOLUTION
　　1。TheRevolutionaryAssembliesandtheArmies2。TheStruggleofEuropeagainsttheRevolution3。PsychologicalandMilitaryFactorswhichdeterminedthesuccessoftheRevolutionaryArmiesCHAPTERVII。PSYCHOLOGYOFTHELEADERSOFTHEREVOLUTION
　　1。MentalityofthemenoftheRevolution。Therespectiveinfluenceofviolentandfeeblecharacters2。PsychologyoftheCommissariesorRepresentatives``onMission’’
　　3。DantonandRobespierre4。Fouquier—Tinville，Marat，Billaud—Varenne，&c。
　　5。ThedestinyofthoseMembersoftheConventionwhosurvivedtheRevolutionBOOKIII
　　THECONFLICTBETWEENANCESTRALINFLUENCESANDREVOLUTIONARY
　　PRINCIPLES
　　CHAPTERI。THELASTCONVULSIONSOFANARCHY。THEDIRECTORY
　　1。PsychologyoftheDirectory2。DespoticGovernmentoftheDirectory。RecrudescenceoftheTerror3。TheAdventofBonaparte4。CausesoftheDurationoftheRevolutionCHAPTERII。THERESTORATIONOFORDER。THECONSULARREPUBLIC
　　1。HowtheworkoftheRevolutionwasconfirmedbytheConsulate2。There—organisationofFrancebytheConsulate3。PsychologicalelementswhichdeterminedthesuccessoftheworkoftheConsulateCHAPTERIII。POLITICALRESULTSOFTHECONFLICTBETWEEN
　　TRADITIONSANDTHEREVOLUTIONARYPRINCIPLESDURINGTHE
　　LASTCENTURY
　　1。ThepsychologicalcausesofthecontinuedRevolutionaryMovementstowhichFrancehasbeensubject2。Summaryofacentury’sRevolutionaryMovementsinFrancePARTIII
　　THERECENTEVOLUTIONOFTHEREVOLUTIONARYPRINCIPLES
　　CHAPTERI。THEPROGRESSOFDEMOCRATICBELIEFSSINCETHE
　　REVOLUTION
　　1。GradualpropagationofDemocraticIdeasaftertheRevolution2。TheunequalinfluenceofthethreefundamentalprinciplesoftheRevolution3。TheDemocracyofthe``Intellectuals’’andPopularDemocracy4。NaturalInequalitiesandDemocraticEqualisationCHAPTERII。THERESULTSOFDEMOCRATICEVOLUTION
　　1。Theinfluenceuponsocialevolutionoftheoriesofnorationalvalue2。TheJacobinSpiritandtheMentalitycreatedbyDemocraticBeliefs3。UniversalSuffrageanditsrepresentatives4。ThecravingforReforms5。SocialdistinctionsinDemocraciesandDemocraticIdeasinvariouscountriesCHAPTERIII。THENEWFORMSOFDEMOCRATICBELIEF
　　1。TheconflictbetweenCapitalandLabour2。TheevolutionoftheWorkingClassesandtheSyndicalistMovement3。WhycertainmodernDemocraticGovernmentsaregraduallybeingtransformedintoGovernmentsbyAdministrativeCastesCONCLUSIONS
　　THEPSYCHOLOGYOFREVOLUTION
　　INTRODUCTION
　　THEREVISIONOFHISTORY
　　Thepresentageisnotmerelyanepochofdiscovery；itisalsoaperiodofrevisionofthevariouselementsofknowledge。Havingrecognisedthattherearenophenomenaofwhichthefirstcauseisstillaccessible，sciencehasresumedtheexaminationofherancientcertitudes，andhasprovedtheirfragility。To—daysheseesherancientprinciplesvanishingonebyone。Mechanicsislosingitsaxioms，andmatter，formerlytheeternalsubstratumoftheworlds，becomesasimpleaggregateofephemeralforcesintransitorycondensation。
　　Despiteitsconjecturalside，byvirtueofwhichittosomeextentescapestheseverestformofcriticism，historyhasnotbeenfreefromthisuniversalrevision。Thereisnolongerasingleoneofitsphasesofwhichwecansaythatitiscertainlyknown。Whatappearedtobedefinitelyacquiredisnowoncemoreputinquestion。
　　AmongtheeventswhosestudyseemedcompletedwastheFrenchRevolution。Analysedbyseveralgenerationsofwriters，onemightsupposeittobeperfectlyelucidated。Whatnewthingcanbesaidofit，exceptinmodificationofsomeofitsdetails？
　　Andyetitsmostpositivedefendersarebeginningtohesitateintheirjudgments。Ancientevidenceprovestobefarfromimpeccable。Thefaithindogmasonceheldsacredisshaken。ThelatestliteratureoftheRevolutionbetraystheseuncertainties。
　　Havingrelated，menaremoreandmorecharyofdrawingconclusions。
　　Notonlyaretheheroesofthisgreatdramadiscussedwithoutindulgence，butthinkersareaskingwhetherthenewdispensationwhichfollowedtheancienregimewouldnothaveestablisheditselfnaturally，withoutviolence，inthecourseofprogressivecivilisation。TheresultsobtainednolongerseemincorrespondenceeitherwiththeirimmediatecostorwiththeremoterconsequenceswhichtheRevolutionevokedfromthepossibilitiesofhistory。
　　Severalcauseshaveledtotherevisionofthistragicperiod。
　　Timehascalmedpassions，numerousdocumentshavegraduallyemergedfromthearchives，andthehistorianislearningtointerpretthemindependently。
　　Butitisperhapsmodernpsychologythathasmosteffectuallyinfluencedourideas，byenablingusmoresurelytoreadmenandthemotivesoftheirconduct。
　　Amongthoseofitsdiscoverieswhicharehenceforthapplicabletohistorywemustmention，aboveall，amoreprofoundunderstandingofancestralinfluences，thelawswhichruletheactionsofthecrowd，datarelatingtothedisaggregationofpersonality，mentalcontagion，theunconsciousformationofbeliefs，andthedistinctionbetweenthevariousformsoflogic。
　　Totellthetruth，theseapplicationsofscience，whichareutilisedinthisbook，havenotbeensoutilisedhitherto。
　　Historianshavegenerallystoppedshortatthestudyofdocuments，andeventhatstudyissufficienttoexcitethedoubtsofwhichIhavespoken。
　　Thegreateventswhichshapethedestiniesofpeoples——
　　revolutions，forexample，andtheoutbreakofreligiousbeliefs——
　　aresometimessodifficulttoexplainthatonemustlimitoneselftoamerestatement。
　　FromthetimeofmyfirsthistoricalresearchesIhavebeenstruckbytheimpenetrableaspectofcertainessentialphenomena，thoserelatingtothegenesisofbeliefsespecially；Ifeltconvincedthatsomethingfundamentalwaslackingthatwasessentialtotheirinterpretation。Reasonhavingsaidallitcouldsay，nothingmorecouldbeexpectedofit，andothermeansmustbesoughtofcomprehendingwhathadnotbeenelucidated。
　　Foralongtimetheseimportantquestionsremainedobscuretome。
　　Extendedtravel，devotedtothestudyoftheremnantsofvanishedcivilisations，hadnotdonemuchtothrowlightuponthem。
　　Reflectinguponitcontinually，Iwasforcedtorecognisethattheproblemwascomposedofaseriesofotherproblems，whichI
　　shouldhavetostudyseparately。ThisIdidforaperiodoftwentyyears，presentingtheresultsofmyresearchesinasuccessionofvolumes。
　　Oneofthefirstwasdevotedtothestudyofthepsychologicallawsoftheevolutionofpeoples。Havingshownthatthehistoricraces——thatis，theracesformedbythehazardsofhistory——finallyacquiredpsychologicalcharacteristicsasstableastheiranatomicalcharacteristics，Iattemptedtoexplainhowapeopletransformsitsinstitutions，itslanguages，anditsarts。
　　Iexplainedinthesameworkwhyitwasthatindividualpersonalities，undertheinfluenceofsuddenvariationsofenvironment，mightbeentirelydisaggregated。
　　Butbesidesthefixedcollectivitiesformedbythepeoples，therearemobileandtransitorycollectivitiesknownascrowds。Nowthesecrowdsormobs，bytheaidofwhichthegreatmovementsofhistoryareaccomplished，havecharacteristicsabsolutelydifferentfromthoseoftheindividualswhocomposethem。Whatarethesecharacteristics，andhowaretheyevolved？ThisnewproblemwasexaminedinThePsychologyoftheCrowd。
　　OnlyafterthesestudiesdidIbegintoperceivecertaininfluenceswhichhadescapedme。
　　Butthiswasnotall。Amongthemostimportantfactorsofhistoryonewaspreponderant——thefactorofbeliefs。Howarethesebeliefsborn，andaretheyreallyrationalandvoluntary，aswaslongtaught？Aretheynotratherunconsciousandindependentofallreason？Adifficultquestion，whichIdealtwithinmylastbook，OpinionsandBeliefs。
　　Solongaspsychologyregardsbeliefsasvoluntaryandrationaltheywillremaininexplicable。Havingprovedthattheyareusuallyirrationalandalwaysinvoluntary，Iwasabletopropoundthesolutionofthisimportantproblem；howitwasthatbeliefswhichnoreasoncouldjustifywereadmittedwithoutdifficultybythemostenlightenedspiritsofallages。
　　Thesolutionofthehistoricaldifficultieswhichhadsolongbeensoughtwasthenceforthobvious。Iarrivedattheconclusionthatbesidetherationallogicwhichconditionsthought，andwasformerlyregardedasoursoleguide，thereexistverydifferentformsoflogic：affectivelogic，collectivelogic，andmysticlogic，whichusuallyoverrulethereasonandengenderthegenerativeimpulsesofourconduct。
　　Thisfactwellestablished，itseemedtomeevidentthatifagreatnumberofhistoricaleventsareoftenuncomprehended，itisbecauseweseektointerprettheminthelightofalogicwhichinrealityhasverylittleinfluenceupontheirgenesis。
　　Alltheseresearches，whichareheresummedupinafewlines，demandedlongyearsfortheiraccomplishment。Despairingofcompletingthem，Iabandonedthemmorethanoncetoreturntothoselaboursofthelaboratoryinwhichoneisalwayssureofskirtingthetruthandofacquiringfragmentsatleastofcertitude。
　　Butwhileitisveryinterestingtoexploretheworldofmaterialphenomena，itisstillmoresotodeciphermen，forwhichreasonIhavealwaysbeenledbacktopsychology。
　　Certainprinciplesdeducedfrommyresearchesappearinglikelytoprovefruitful，Iresolvedtoapplythemtothestudyofconcreteinstances，andwasthusledtodealwiththePsychologyofRevolutions——notablythatoftheFrenchRevolution。
　　ProceedingintheanalysisofourgreatRevolution，thegreaterpartoftheopinionsdeterminedbythereadingofbooksdesertedmeonebyone，althoughIhadconsideredthemunshakable。
　　Toexplainthisperiodwemustconsideritasawhole，asmanyhistorianshavedone。Itiscomposedofphenomenasimultaneousbutindependentofoneanother。
　　Eachofitsphasesrevealseventsengenderedbypsychologicallawsworkingwiththeregularityofclockwork。Theactorsinthisgreatdramaseemtomovelikethecharactersofapreviouslydetermineddrama。Eachsayswhathemustsay，actsasheisboundtoact。
　　Tobesure，theactorsintherevolutionarydramadifferedfromthoseofawrittendramainthattheyhadnotstudiedtheirparts，buttheseweredictatedbyinvisibleforces。
　　Preciselybecausetheyweresubjectedtotheinevitableprogressionoflogicsincomprehensibletothemweseethemasgreatlyastonishedbytheeventsofwhichtheyweretheheroesasareweourselves。Neverdidtheysuspecttheinvisiblepowerswhichforcedthemtoact。Theywerethemastersneitheroftheirfurynortheirweakness。Theyspokeinthenameofreason，pretendingtobeguidedbyreason，butinrealityitwasbynomeansreasonthatimpelledthem。
　　``Thedecisionsforwhichwearesogreatlyreproached，’’wroteBillaud—Varenne，``weremoreoftenthanotherwisenotintendedordesiredbyustwodaysorevenonedaybeforehand：thecrisisaloneevokedthem。’’
　　NotthatwemustconsidertheeventsoftheRevolutionasdominatedbyanimperiousfatality。Thereadersofourworkswillknowthatwerecogniseinthemanofsuperiorqualitiestheroleofavertingfatalities。Buthecandissociatehimselfonlyfromafewofsuch，andisoftenpowerlessbeforethesequenceofeventswhichevenattheirorigincouldscarcelyberuled。Thescientistknowshowtodestroythemicrobebeforeithastimetoact，butheknowshimselfpowerlesstopreventtheevolutionoftheresultingmalady。
　　Whenanyquestiongivesrisetoviolentlycontradictoryopinionswemaybesurethatitbelongstotheprovinceofbeliefsandnottothatofknowledge。
　　Wehaveshowninaprecedingworkthatbelief，ofunconsciousoriginandindependentofallreason，canneverbeinfluencedbyreason。
　　TheRevolution，theworkofbelievers，hasseldombeenjudgedbyanybutbelievers。Execratedbysomeandpraisedbyothers，ithasremainedoneofthosedogmaswhichareacceptedorrejectedasawhole，withouttheinterventionofrationallogic。
　　Althoughinitsbeginningsareligiousorpoliticalrevolutionmayverywellbesupportedbyrationalelements，itisdevelopedonlybytheaidofmysticandaffectiveelementswhichareabsolutelyforeigntoreason。
　　ThehistorianswhohavejudgedtheeventsoftheFrenchRevolutioninthenameofrationallogiccouldnotcomprehendthem，sincethisformoflogicdidnotdictatethem。Astheactorsoftheseeventsthemselvesunderstoodthembutill，weshallnotbefarfromthetruthinsayingthatourRevolutionwasaphenomenonequallymisunderstoodbythosewhocauseditandbythosewhohavedescribedit。Atnoperiodofhistorydidmensolittlegraspthepresent，sogreatlyignorethepast，andsopoorlydivinethefuture……ThepoweroftheRevolutiondidnotresideintheprinciples——whichforthatmatterwereanythingbutnovel——whichitsoughttopropagate，norintheinstitutionswhichitsoughttofound。Thepeoplecaresverylittleforinstitutionsandevenlessfordoctrines。ThattheRevolutionwaspotentindeed，thatitmadeFranceaccepttheviolence，themurders，theruinandthehorrorofafrightfulcivilwar，thatfinallyitdefendeditselfvictoriouslyagainstaEuropeinarms，wasduetothefactthatithadfoundednotanewsystemofgovernmentbutanewreligion。
　　Nowhistoryshowsushowirresistibleisthemightofastrongbelief。InvincibleRomeherselfhadtobowbeforethearmiesofnomadshepherdsilluminatedbythefaithofMahommed。ForthesamereasonthekingsofEuropecouldnotresistthetatterdemalionsoldiersoftheConvention。Likeallapostles，theywerereadytoimmolatethemselvesinthesoleendofpropagatingtheirbeliefs，whichaccordingtotheirdreamweretorenewtheworld。
　　Thereligionthusfoundedhadtheforceofotherreligions，ifnottheirduration。Yetitdidnotperishwithoutleavingindelibletraces，anditsinfluenceisactivestill。
　　WeshallnotconsidertheRevolutionasacleansweepinhistory，asitsapostlesbelievedit。Weknowthattodemonstratetheirintentionofcreatingaworlddistinctfromtheoldtheyinitiatedaneweraandprofessedtobreakentirelywithallvestigesofthepast。
　　Butthepastneverdies。Itisevenmoretrulywithinusthanwithoutus。AgainsttheirwillthereformersoftheRevolutionremainedsaturatedwiththepast，andcouldonlycontinue，underothernames，thetraditionsofthemonarchy，evenexaggeratingtheautocracyandcentralisationoftheoldsystem。TocquevillehadnodifficultyinprovingthattheRevolutiondidlittlebutoverturnthatwhichwasabouttofall。
　　IfinrealitytheRevolutiondestroyedbutlittleitfavouredthefruitionofcertainideaswhichcontinuedthenceforthtodevelop。
　　Thefraternityandlibertywhichitproclaimednevergreatlyseducedthepeoples，butequalitybecametheirgospel：thepivotofsocialismandoftheentireevolutionofmoderndemocraticideas。WemaythereforesaythattheRevolutiondidnotendwiththeadventoftheEmpire，norwiththesuccessiverestorationswhichfollowedit。Secretlyorinthelightofdayithasslowlyunrolleditselfandstillaffectsmen’sminds。
　　ThestudyoftheFrenchRevolutiontowhichagreatpartofthisbookisdevotedwillperhapsdeprivethereaderofmorethanoneillusion，byprovingtohimthatthebookswhichrecountthehistoryoftheRevolutioncontaininrealityamassoflegendsveryremotefromreality。
　　Theselegendswilldoubtlessretainmorelifethanhistoryitself。Donotregretthistoogreatly。Itmayinterestafewphilosopherstoknowthetruth，butthepeopleswillalwayspreferdreams。Synthetisingtheirideal，suchdreamswillalwaysconstitutepowerfulmotivesofaction。Onewouldlosecouragewereitnotsustainedbyfalseideas，saidFontenelle。JoanofArc，theGiantsoftheConvention，theImperialepic——allthesedazzlingimagesofthepastwillalwaysremainsourcesofhopeinthegloomyhoursthatfollowdefeat。Theyformpartofthatpatrimonyofillusionsleftusbyourfathers，whosepowerisoftengreaterthanthatofreality。Thedream，theideal，thelegend——inaword，theunreal——itisthatwhichshapeshistory。
　　PARTI
　　THEPSYCHOLOGICALELEMENTSOFREVOLUTIONARYMOVEMENTS
　　BOOKI
　　GENERALCHARACTERISTICSOFREVOLUTIONS
　　CHAPTERI
　　SCIENTIFICANDPOLITICALREVOLUTIONS
　　1。ClassificationofRevolutions。
　　Wegenerallyapplythetermrevolutiontosuddenpoliticalchanges，buttheexpressionmaybeemployedtodenoteallsuddentransformations，ortransformationsapparentlysudden，whetherofbeliefs，ideas，ordoctrines。
　　Wehaveconsideredelsewherethepartplayedbytherational，affective，andmysticfactorsinthegenesisoftheopinionsandbeliefswhichdetermineconduct。Weneednotthereforereturntothesubjecthere。
　　Arevolutionmayfinallybecomeabelief，butitoftencommencesundertheactionofperfectlyrationalmotives：thesuppressionofcryingabuses，ofadetesteddespoticgovernment，oranunpopularsovereign，&c。
　　Althoughtheoriginofarevolutionmaybeperfectlyrational，wemustnotforgetthatthereasonsinvokedinpreparingforitdonotinfluencethecrowduntiltheyhavebeentransformedintosentiments。Rationallogiccanpointtotheabusestobedestroyed，buttomovethemultitudeitshopesmustbeawakened。
　　Thiscanonlybeeffectedbytheactionoftheaffectiveandmysticelementswhichgivemanthepowertoact。AtthetimeoftheFrenchRevolution，forexample，rationallogic，inthehandsofthephilosophers，demonstratedtheinconveniencesoftheancienregime，andexcitedthedesiretochangeit。Mysticlogicinspiredbeliefinthevirtuesofasocietycreatedinallitsmembersaccordingtocertainprinciples。Affectivelogicunchainedthepassionsconfinedbythebondsofagesandledtotheworstexcesses。CollectivelogicruledtheclubsandtheAssembliesandimpelledtheirmemberstoactionswhichneitherrationalnoraffectivenormysticlogicwouldeverhavecausedthemtocommit。
　　Whateveritsorigin，arevolutionisnotproductiveofresultsuntilithassunkintothesoulofthemultitude。Theneventsacquirespecialformsresultingfromthepeculiarpsychologyofcrowds。Popularmovementsforthisreasonhavecharacteristicssopronouncedthatthedescriptionofonewillenableustocomprehendtheothers。
　　Themultitudeis，therefore，theagentofarevolution；butnotitspointofdeparture。Thecrowdrepresentsanamorphousbeingwhichcandonothing，andwillnothing，withoutaheadtoleadit。Itwillquicklyexceedtheimpulseoncereceived，butitnevercreatesit。