manpossessesthetheoreticalrightofpassingthebarrierswhichseparatehimfromtheupperclassesbyawholeseriesofcompetitionsandexaminations，hischanceofreachingthemisinrealityextremelyslight。
　　Thedemocracyoftheletteredclasseshasnootherobjectthantosetupaselectionwhichshallrecruitthedirectingclassesexclusivelyfromthemselves。Ishouldhavenothingtosayagainstthisiftheselectionwerereal。ItwouldthenconstitutetheapplicationofthemaximofNapoleon：``Thetruemethodofgovernmentistoemploythearistocracy，butundertheformsofdemocracy。’’
　　Unhappilythedemocracyofthe``intellectuals’’wouldsimplyleadtothesubstitutionoftheDivinerightofkingsbytheDivinerightofapettyoligarchy，whichistoooftennarrowandtyrannical。Libertycannotbecreatedbyreplacingatyranny。
　　Populardemocracybynomeansaimsatmanufacturingrulers。
　　Dominatedentirelybythespiritofequalityandthedesiretoamelioratethelotoftheworkers，itrejectstheideaoffraternity，andexhibitsnoanxietyinrespectofliberty。Nogovernmentisconceivabletopopulardemocracyexceptintheformofanautocracy。Weseethis，notonlyinhistory，whichshowsusthatsincetheRevolutionalldespoticGovernmentshavebeenvigorouslyacclaimed，butalsointheautocraticfashioninwhichtheworkers’tradesunionsareconducted。
　　Thisprofounddistinctionbetweenthedemocracyoftheletteredclassesandpopulardemocracyisfarmoreobvioustotheworkersthantotheintellectuals。Intheirmentalitiesthereisnothingincommon；thetwoclassesdonotspeakthesamelanguage。Thesyndicalistsemphaticallyassertto—daythatnoalliancecouldpossiblyexistbetweenthemandthepoliticiansofthebourgeoisie。Thisassertionisstrictlytrue。
　　Itwasalwaysso，andthis，nodoubt，iswhypopulardemocracy，fromPlato’stoourowntimes，hasneverbeendefendedbythegreatthinkers。
　　ThisfacthasgreatlystruckEmileFaguet。``Almostallthethinkersofthenineteenthcentury，’’hesays，``werenotdemocrats。WhenIwaswritingmyPolitiquesetmoralistesduXIXesieclethiswasmydespair。Icouldnotfindonewhohadbeenademocrat；yetIwasextremelyanxioustofindonesothatIcouldgivethedemocraticdoctrineasformulatedbyhim。’’
　　Theeminentwritermightcertainlyhavefoundplentyofprofessionalpoliticians，buttheselatterrarelybelongtothecategoryofthinkers。
　　2。NaturalInequalitiesandDemocraticEqualisation。
　　Thedifficultyofreconcilingdemocraticequalisationwithnaturalinequalitiesconstitutesoneofthemostdifficultproblemsofthepresenthour。Weknowwhatarethedesiresofdemocracy。LetusseewhatNaturerepliestothesedemands。
　　ThedemocraticideaswhichhavesooftenshakentheworldfromtheheroicagesofGreecetomoderntimesarealwaysclashingwithnaturalinequalities。Someobservershaveheld，withHelvetius，thattheinequalitybetweenmeniscreatedbyeducation。
　　Asamatteroffact，Naturedoesnotknowsuchathingasequality。Shedistributesunevenlygenius，beauty，health，vigour，intelligence，andallthequalitieswhichconferontheirpossessorsasuperiorityovertheirfellows。
　　Notheorycanalterthesediscrepancies，sothatdemocraticdoctrineswillremainconfinedtowordsuntilthelawsofheredityconsenttounifythecapacitiesofmen。
　　CanwesupposethatsocietieswilleversucceedinestablishingartificiallytheequalityrefusedbyNature？
　　Afewtheoristshavebelievedforalongtimethateducationmighteffectagenerallevelling。Manyyearsofexperiencehaveshownthedepthofthisillusion。
　　Itwouldnot，however，beimpossibleforatriumphantSocialismtoestablishequalityforatimebyrigorouslyeliminatingallsuperiorindividuals。Onecaneasilyforeseewhatwouldbecomeofapeoplethathadsuppresseditsbestindividualswhilesurroundedbyothernationsprogressingbymeansoftheirbestindividuals。
　　NotonlydoesNaturenotknowequality，butsincethebeginningoftheagesshehasalwaysrealisedprogressbymeansofsuccessivedifferentiations——thatistosay，byincreasinginequalities。Thesealonecouldraisetheobscurecelloftheearlygeologicalperiodstothesuperiorbeingswhoseinventionsweretochangethefaceoftheearth。
　　Thesamephenomenonistobeobservedinsocieties。Theformsofdemocracywhichselectthebetterelementsofthepopularclassesfinallyresultinthecreationofanintellectualaristocracy，aresultthecontraryofthedreamofthepuretheorists，tobeatdownthesuperiorelementsofsocietytotheleveloftheinferiorelements。
　　Onthesideofnaturallaw，whichishostiletotheoriesofequality，aretheconditionsofmodernprogress。Scienceandindustrydemandmoreandmoreconsiderableintellectualefforts，sothatmentalinequalitiesandthedifferencesofsocialconditionwhichspringfromthemcannotbutbecomeaccentuated。
　　Wethereforeobservethisstrikingphenomenon：aslawsandinstitutionsseektolevelindividualstheprogressofcivilisationtendsstillfurthertodifferentiatethem。Fromthepeasanttothefeudalbarontheintellectualdifferencewasnotgreat，butfromtheworking—mantotheengineeritisimmenseandisincreasingdaily。
　　Capacitybeingtheprincipalfactorofprogress，thecapableofeachclassrisewhilethemediocreremainstationaryorsink。
　　Whatcouldlawsdointhefaceofsuchinevitablenecessities？
　　Invaindotheincapablepretendthat，representingnumber，theyalsorepresentforce。Deprivedofthesuperiorbrainsbywhoseresearchesallworkersprofit，theywouldspeedilysinkintopovertyandanarchy。
　　Thecapitalroleoftheelectinmoderncivilisationseemstooobvioustoneedpointingout。Inthecaseofcivilisednationsandbarbarianpeoples，whichcontainsimilaraveragesofmediocrities，thesuperiorityoftheformerarisessolelyfromthesuperiormindswhichtheycontain。TheUnitedStateshaveunderstoodthissothoroughlythattheyforbidtheimmigrationofChineseworkers，whosecapacityisidenticalwiththatofAmericanworkers，andwho，workingforlowerwages，tendtocreateaformidablecompetitionwiththelatter。Despitetheseevidencesweseetheantagonismbetweenthemultitudeandtheelectincreasingdaybyday。Atnoperiodweretheelectmorenecessary，yetneverweretheysupportedwithsuchdifficulty。
　　OneofthemostsolidfoundationsofSocialismisanintensehatredoftheelect。Itsadeptsalwaysforgetthatscientific，artistic，andindustrialprogress，whichcreatesthestrengthofacountryandtheprosperityofmillionsofworkers，isduesolelytoasmallnumberofsuperiorbrains。
　　Iftheworkermakesthreetimesasmuchto—dayashedidahundredyearsago，andenjoyscommoditiesthenunknowntogreatnobles，heowesitentirelytotheelect。
　　SupposethatbysomemiracleSocialismhadbeenuniversallyacceptedacenturyago。Risk，speculation，initiative——inaword，allthestimulantsofhumanactivity——beingsuppressed，noprogresswouldhavebeenpossible，andtheworkerwouldhaveremainedaspoorashewas。Menwouldmerelyhaveestablishedthatequalityinpovertydesiredbythejealousyandenvyofahostofmediocreminds。Humanitywillneverrenouncetheprogressofcivilisationtosatisfysolowanideal。
　　CHAPTERII
　　THERESULTSOFDEMOCRATICEVOLUTION
　　1。TheInfluenceuponSocialEvolutionofTheoriesofnoRationalValue。
　　Wehaveseenthatnaturallawsdonotagreewiththeaspirationsofdemocracy。Weknow，also，thatsuchastatementhasneveraffecteddoctrinesalreadyinmen’sminds。Themanledbyabeliefnevertroublesaboutitsrealvalue。
　　Thephilosopherwhostudiesabeliefmustobviouslydiscussitsrationalcontent，butheismoreconcernedwithitsinfluencesuponthegeneralmind。
　　Appliedtotheinterpretationofallthegreatbeliefsofhistory，theimportanceofthisdistinctionisatonceevident。
　　Jupiter，Moloch，Vishnu，Allah，andsomanyotherdivinities，were，nodoubt，fromtherationalpointofview，mereillusions，yettheireffectuponthelifeofthepeopleshasbeenconsiderable。
　　ThesamedistinctionisapplicabletothebeliefswhichprevailedduringtheMiddleAges。Equallyillusory，theyneverthelessexercisedasprofoundaninfluenceasiftheyhadcorrespondedwithrealities。
　　Ifanyonedoubtsthis，lethimcomparethedominationoftheRomanEmpireandthatoftheChurchofRome。Thefirstwasperfectlyrealandtangible，andimpliednoillusion。Thesecond，whileitsfoundationswereentirelychimerical，wasfullyaspowerful。Thankstoit，duringthelongnightoftheMiddleAges，semi—barbarouspeoplesacquiredthosesocialbondsandrestraintsandthatnationalsoulwithoutwhichthereisnocivilisation。
　　ThepowerpossessedbytheChurchproves，again，thatthepowerofcertainillusionsissufficientlygreattocreate，atleastmomentarily，sentimentsascontrarytotheinterestsoftheindividualastheyaretothatofsociety——suchastheloveofthemonasticlife，thedesireformartyrdom，thecrusades，thereligiouswars，&c。
　　Theapplicationtodemocraticandsocialisticideasoftheprecedingconsiderationsshowsthatitmatterslittlethattheseideashavenodefensiblebasis。Theyimpressandinfluencemen’sminds，andthatissufficient。Theirresultsmaybedisastrousintheextreme，butwecannotpreventthem。
　　Theapostlesofthenewdoctrinesarequitewrongintakingsomuchtroubletofindarationalbasisfortheiraspirations。
　　Theywouldbefarmoreconvincingweretheytoconfinethemselvestomakingaffirmationsandawakeninghopes。Theirrealstrengthresidesinthereligiousmentalitywhichisinherentintheheartofman，andwhichduringtheageshasonlychangeditsobject。
　　Lateronweshallconsiderfromaphilosophicalpointofviewvariousconsequencesofthedemocraticevolutionwhosecourseweseeaccelerating。WemaysayinrespectoftheChurchintheMiddleAgesthatithadthepowerofprofoundlyinfluencingthementalityofmen。Examiningcertainresultsofthedemocraticdoctrines，weshallseethatthepoweroftheseisnolessthanthatoftheChurch。
　　2。TheJacobinSpiritandtheMentalitycreatedbyDemocraticBeliefs。
　　Existinggenerationshaveinherited，notonlytherevolutionaryprinciplesbutalsothespecialmentalitywhichachievestheirsuccess。
　　DescribingthismentalitywhenwewereexaminingtheJacobinspirit，wesawthatitalwaysendeavourstoimposebyforceillusionswhichitregardsasthetruth。TheJacobinspirithasfinallybecomesogeneralinFranceandinotherLatincountriesthatithasaffectedallpoliticalparties，eventhemostconservative。Thebourgeoisieisstronglyaffectedbyit，andthepeoplestillmoreso。
　　ThisincreaseoftheJacobinspirithasresultedinthefactthatpoliticalconceptions，institutions，andlawstendtoimposethemselvesbyforce。Syndicalism，peacefulenoughinothercountries，immediatelyassumedinFranceanuncompromisingandanarchicalaspect，whichbetrayeditselfintheshapeofriots，sabotage，andincendiarism。
　　NottoberepressedbytimidGovernments，theJacobinspiritproducesmelancholyravagesinmindsofmediocrecapacity。Atarecentcongressofrailwaymenathirdofthedelegatesvotedapprovalofsabotage，andoneofthesecretariesoftheCongressbeganhisspeechbysaying：``Isendallsaboteursmyfraternalgreetingandallmyadmiration。’’
　　Thisgeneralmentalityengendersanincreasinganarchy。ThatFranceisnotinapermanentstateofanarchyis，asIhavealreadyremarked，duetothefactthatthepartiesbywhichsheisdividedproducesomethinglikeequilibrium。Theyareanimatedbyamortalhatredforoneanother，butnoneofthemisstrongenoughtoenslaveitsrivals。
　　ThisJacobinintoleranceisspreadingtosuchanextentthattherulersthemselvesemploywithoutscruplethemostrevolutionarytacticswithregardtotheirenemies，violentlypersecutinganypartythatofferstheleastresistance，andevendespoilingitofitsproperty。Ourrulersto—daybehaveastheancientconquerorsused；thevanquishedhavenothingtohopefromthevictors。
　　Farfrombeingpeculiartothelowerorders，intoleranceisequallyprominentamongtherulingclasses。Micheletremarkedlongagothattheviolenceofthecultivatedclassesisoftengreaterthanthatofthepeople。Itistruethattheydonotbreakthestreetlamps，buttheyarereadyenoughtocauseheadstobebroken。Theworstviolenceoftherevolutionwastheworkofcultivatedbourgeoisie——professors，lawyers，&c。，possessorsofthatclassicaleducationwhichissupposedtosoftenthemanners。Ithasnotdonesointhesedays，anymorethanitdidofold。Onecanmakesureofthisbyreadingtheadvancedjournals，whosecontributorsandeditorsarerecruitedchieflyfromamongtheprofessorsoftheUniversity。
　　Theirbooksareasviolentastheirarticles，andonewondershowsuchfavouritesoffortunecanhavesecretedsuchstoresofhatred。
　　Onewouldfindithardtocreditthemdidtheyassureusthattheywereconsumedbyanintensepassionforaltruism。Onemightmorereadilyadmitthatapartfromanarrowreligiousmentalitythehopeofbeingremarkedbythemightyonesoftheday，orofcreatingaprofitablepopularity，istheonlypossibleexplanationoftheviolencerecommendedintheirwrittenpropaganda。
　　Ihavealready，inoneofmyprecedingworks，citedsomepassagesfromabookwrittenbyaprofessorattheCollegeofFrance，inwhichtheauthorincitesthepeopletoseizeupontherichesofthebourgeoisie，whomhefuriouslyabuses，andhavearrivedattheconclusionthatanewrevolutionwouldreadilyfindamongtheauthorsofsuchbookstheMarats，Robespierres，andCarrierswhomitmightrequire。
　　TheJacobinreligion——aboveallinitsSocialistform——hasallthepoweroftheancientfaithsoverfeeblemindsBlindedbytheirfaith，theybelievethatreasonistheirguide，butarereallyactuatedsolelybytheirpassionsandtheirdreams。
　　Theevolutionofdemocraticideashasthusproducednotonlythepoliticalresultsalreadymentioned，butalsoaconsiderableeffectuponthementalityofmodernmen。
　　Iftheancientdogmashavelongagoexhaustedtheirpower，thetheoriesofdemocracyarefarfromhavinglosttheirs，andweseetheirconsequencesincreasingdaily。Oneofthechiefresultshasbeenthegeneralhatredofsuperiority。
　　Thishatredofwhateverpassestheaverageinsocialfortuneorintelligenceisto—daygeneralinallclasses，fromtheworking—
　　classestotheupperstrataofthebourgeoisie。Theresultsareenvy，detraction，andaloveofattack，ofraillery，ofpersecution，andahabitofattributingallactionstolowmotives，ofrefusingtobelieveinprobity，disinterestedness，andintelligence。
　　Conversation，amongthepeopleasamongthemostcultivatedFrenchmen，isstampedwiththecrazeforabasingandabusingeverythingandeveryone。Eventhegreatestofthedeaddonotescapethistendency。Neverweresomanybookswrittentodepreciatethemeritoffamousmen，menwhowereformerlyregardedasthemostpreciouspatrimonyoftheircountry。
　　Envyandhatredseemfromalltimetohavebeeninseparablefromdemocratictheories，butthespreadofthesesentimentshasneverbeensogreatasto—day。Itstrikesallobservers。
　　``Thereisalowdemagogicinstinct，’’writesM。Bourdeau，``withoutanymoralinspiration，whichdreamsofpullinghumanitydowntothelowestlevel，andforwhichanysuperiority，evenofculture，isanoffencetosociety……itisthesentimentofignobleequalitywhichanimatedtheJacobinbutcherswhentheystruckofftheheadofaLavoisieroraChenier。
　　Thishatredofsuperiority，themostprominentelementinthemodernprogressofSocialism，isnottheonlycharacteristicofthenewspiritcreatedbydemocraticideas。
　　Otherconsequences，althoughindirect，arenotlessprofound。
　　Such，forexample，aretheprogressof``statism，’’thediminutionofthepowerofthebourgeoisie，theincreasingactivityoffinanciers，theconflictoftheclasses，thevanishingoftheoldsocialconstraints，andthedegradationofmorality。
　　Alltheseeffectsaredisplayedinageneralinsubordinationandanarchy。Thesonrevoltsagainstthefather，theemployeeagainsthispatron，thesoldieragainsthisofficers。
　　Discontent，hatred，andenvyreignthroughout。
　　Asocialmovementwhichcontinuesisnecessarilylikeamachineinmovementwhichacceleratesitsmotion。Weshallthereforefindthattheresultsofthismentalitywillbecomeyetmoreimportant。Itisbetrayedfromtimetotimebyincidentswhosegravityisdailyincreasing——railwaystrikes，postmen’sstrikes，explosionsonboardironclads，&c。AproposofthedestructionoftheLiberte，whichcostmorethantwomillionpoundsandslewtwohundredmeninthespaceofaminute，anex—MinisterofMarine，M。deLanessan，expresseshimselfasfollows：——
　　’’Theevilthatisgnawingatourfleetisthesameasthatwhichisdevouringourarmy，ourpublicadministrations，ourparliamentarysystem，ourgovernmentalsystem，andthewholefabricofoursociety。Thisevilisanarchy——thatistosay，suchadisorderofmindsandthingsthatnothingisdoneasreasonwoulddictate，andnoonebehavesashisprofessionalormoraldutyshouldrequirehimtobehave。’’
　　OnthesubjectofthecatastropheoftheLiberte，whichfollowedthatoftheIena，M。FelixRousselsaid，inaspeechdeliveredaspresidentofthemunicipalcouncilofParis：——
　　``Thecausesoftheevilarenotpeculiartoourday。Theevilismoregeneral，andbearsatriplename：irresponsibility，indiscipline，andanarchy。’’
　　Thesequotations，whichstatefactswithwhicheveryoneisfamiliar，showthatthestaunchestupholdersoftherepublicansystemthemselvesrecognisetheprogressofsocialdisorganisation。[12]Everyoneseesit，whileheisconsciousofhisownimpotencetochangeanything。Itresults，infact，frommentalinfluenceswhosepowerisgreaterthanthatofourwills。
　　[12]ThisdisorderisthesameinalltheGovernmentdepartmentsInterestingexampleswillbefoundinareportofM。DaussettotheMunicipalCouncil：——
　　``Theserviceofthepublichighways，whichoughtabovealltobenotedforitsrapidexecution，is，onthecontrary，theverytypeofred—tape，bureaucratic，andink—slingingadministration，possessingmenandmoneyandwastingbothintaskswhichareoftenuseless，forlackoforder，initiative，andmethod——inaword，oforganisation。
　　Speakingthenofthedirectorsofdepartments，eachofwhomworksashepleases，andafterhisownfashion，headds：——
　　``Theseimportantpersonscompletelyignoreoneanother；theyprepareandexecutetheirplanswithoutknowinganythingofwhattheirneighboursaredoing；thereisnooneabovethemtogroupandco—ordinatetheirwork。’’Thisiswhyaroadisoftentornup，repaired，andthentornupagainafewdayslater，becausethedepartmentsdealingwiththesupplyofwater，gas，electricity，andthesewersaremutuallyjealous，andneverattempttoworktogether。Thisanarchyandindisciplinenaturallycostenormoussumsofmoney，andaprivatefirmwhichoperatedinthismannerwouldsoonfinditselfbankrupt。
　　3。UniversalSuffrageanditsRepresentatives。
　　Amongthedogmasofdemocracyperhapsthemostfundamentalofallandthemostattractiveisthatofuniversalsuffrage。Itgivesthemassestheideaofequality，sinceforamomentatleastrichandpoor，learnedandignorant，areequalbeforetheelectoralurn。Theministerelbowstheleastofhisservants，andduringthisbriefmomentthepowerofoneisasgreatastheothers。
　　AllGovernments，includingthatoftheRevolution，havefeareduniversalsuffrage。Atafirstglance，indeed，theobjectionswhichsuggeststhemselvesarenumerous。Theideathatthemultitudecouldusefullychoosethemencapableofgoverning，thatindividualsofindifferentmorality，feebleknowledge，andnarrowmindsshouldpossess，bythesolefactofnumber，acertaintalentforjudgingthecandidateproposedforitsselectionissurelyashockingone。
　　FromarationalpointofviewthesuffrageofnumbersistoacertainextentjustifiedifwethinkwithPascal。
　　``Pluralityisthebestway，becauseitisvisibleandhasstrengthtomakeitselfobeyed；itis，however，theadviceofthelessable。’’
　　Asuniversalsuffragecannotinourtimesbereplacedbyanyotherinstitution，wemustacceptitandtrytoadaptit。ItisaccordinglyuselesstoprotestagainstitortorepeatwiththequeenMarieCaroline，atthetimeofherstrugglewithNapoleon：
　　``Nothingismoredreadfulthantogovernmeninthisenlightenedcentury，wheneverycobblerreasonsandcriticisestheGovernment。’’
　　Totellthetruth，theobjectionsarenotalwaysasgreatastheyappear。Thelawsofthepsychologyofcrowdsbeingadmitted，itisverydoubtfulwhetheralimitedsuffragewouldgiveamuchbetterchoiceofmenthanthatobtainedbyuniversalsuffrage。
　　Thesesamepsychologicallawsalsoshowusthatso—calleduniversalsuffrageisinrealityapurefiction。Thecrowd，saveinveryrarecases，hasnoopinionbutthatofitsleaders。
　　Universalsuffragereallyrepresentsthemostlimitedofsuffrages。
　　Therejustlyresidesitsrealdanger。UniversalsuffrageismadedangerousbythefactthattheleaderswhoareitsmastersarethecreaturesoflittlelocalcommitteesanalogoustotheclubsoftheRevolution。Theleaderwhocanvassesforamandateischosenbythem。
　　Oncenominated，heexercisesanabsolutelocalpower，onconditionofsatisfyingtheinterestsofhiscommittees。Beforethisnecessitythegeneralinterestofthecountrydisappearsalmosttotallyfromthemindoftheelectedrepresentative。
　　Naturallythecommittees，havingneedofdocileservants，donotchooseforthistaskindividualsgiftedwithaloftyintelligencenor，aboveall，withaveryhighmorality。Theymusthavemenwithoutcharacter，withoutsocialposition，andalwaysdocile。
　　Byreasonofthesenecessitiestheservilityofthedeputyinrespectoftheselittlegroupswhichpatronisehim，andwithoutwhichhewouldbenoone，isabsolute。Hewillspeakandvotejustashiscommitteetellshim。Hispoliticalidealmaybeexpressedinafewwords：itistoobey，thathemayretainhispost。
　　Sometimes，rarelyindeed，andonlywhenbynameorpositionorwealthhehasagreatprestige，asuperiorcharactermayimposehimselfuponthepopularvotebyovercomingthetyrannyoftheimpudentminoritieswhichconstitutethelocalcommittees。
　　DemocraticcountrieslikeFranceareonlyapparentlygovernedbyuniversalsuffrage。Forthisreasonisitthatsomanymeasuresarepassedwhichdonotinterestthepeopleandwhichthepeopleneverdemanded。SuchwerethepurchaseoftheWesternrailways，thelawsrespectingcongregations，&c。Theseabsurdmanifestationsmerelytranslatedthedemandsoffanaticallocalcommittees，andwereimposedupondeputieswhomtheyhadchosen。
　　Wemayjudgeoftheinfluenceofthesecommitteeswhenweseemoderatedeputiesforcedtopatronisetheanarchicaldestroyersofarsenals，toallythemselveswithanti—militarists，and，inaword，toobeythemostatrociousdemandsinordertoensurere—election。Thewillofthelowestelementsofdemocracyhasthuscreatedamongtheelectedrepresentativesmannersandamoralitywhichwecanbutrecogniseareofthelowest。Thepoliticianisthemaninpublicemployment，andasNietzschesays：——
　　``Wherepublicemploymentbeginstherebeginsalsotheclamourofthegreatcomediansandthebuzzingofvenomousflies……Thecomedianalwaysbelievesinthatwhichmakeshimobtainhisbesteffects，inthatwhichimpelsthepeopletobelieveinhim。To—
　　morrowhewillhaveanewfaith，andthedayafterto—morrowyetanother……Allthatisgreathasitsbeingfarfrompublicemploymentandglory。’’
　　4。TheCravingforReforms。
　　ThecrazeforreformsimposedsuddenlybymeansofdecreesisoneofthemostdisastrousconceptionsoftheJacobinspirit，oneoftheformidablelegaciesleftbytheRevolution。ItisamongtheprincipalfactorsofalltheincessantpoliticalupheavalsofthelastcenturyinFrance。
　　Oneofthepsychologicalcausesofthisintensethirstforreformsarisesfromthedifficultyofdeterminingtherealcausesoftheevilscomplainedof。Theneedofexplanationcreatesfictitiouscausesofthesimplestnature。Thereforetheremediesalsoappearsimple。
　　Forfortyyearswehaveincessantlybeenpassingreforms，eachofwhichisalittlerevolutioninitself。Inspiteofallthese，orratherbecauseofthem，theFrenchhaveevolvedalmostaslittleasanyraceinEurope。
　　Theslownessofouractualevolutionmaybeseenifwecomparetheprincipalelementsofoursociallife——commerce，industry，&c。——withthoseofothernations。Theprogressofothernations——oftheGermansespecially——thenappearsenormous，whileourownhasbeenveryslow。
　　Ouradministrative，industrial，andcommercialorganisationisconsiderablyoutofdate，andisnolongerequaltoournewneeds。Ourindustryisnotprospering；ourmarineisdeclining。
　　Eveninourowncolonieswecannotcompetewithforeigncountries，despitetheenormouspecuniarysubventionsaccordedbytheState。M。Cruppi，anex—MinisterofCommerce，hasinsistedonthismelancholydeclineinarecentbook。Fallingintotheusualerrors，hebelievediteasytoremedythisinferioritybynewlaws。