Wemusthopeforthesakeoflibertythatthesegloomyfanaticswillneverfinallybecomeourmasters。
　　Giventhesilentpowerofreasonovermysticbeliefs，itisquiteuselesstoseektodiscuss，asissooftendone，therationalvalueofrevolutionaryorpoliticalideas。Onlytheirinfluencecaninterestus。Itmatterslittlethatthetheoriesofthesupposedequalityofmen，theoriginalgoodnessofmankind，thepossibilityofre—makingsocietybymeansoflaws，havebeengiventheliebyobservationandexperience。Theseemptyillusionsmustbecountedamongthemostpotentmotivesofactionthathumanityhasknown。
　　3。TheJacobinMentality。
　　Althoughtheterm``Jacobinmentality’’doesnotreallybelongtoanytrueclassification，Iemployitherebecauseitsumsupaclearlydefinedcombinationwhichconstitutesaveritablepsychologicalspecies。
　　ThismentalitydominatesthemenoftheFrenchRevolution，butisnotpeculiartothem，asitstillrepresentsoneofthemostactiveelementsinourpolitics。
　　ThemysticmentalitywhichwehavealreadyconsideredisanessentialfactoroftheJacobinmind，butitisnotinitselfenoughtoconstitutethatmind。Otherelements，whichweshallnowexamine，mustbeadded。
　　TheJacobinsdonotintheleastsuspecttheirmysticism。Onthecontrary，theyprofesstobeguidedsolelybypurereason。
　　DuringtheRevolutiontheyinvokedreasonincessantly，andconsidereditastheironlyguidetoconduct。
　　ThemajorityofhistorianshaveadoptedthisrationalistconceptionoftheJacobinmind，andTainefellintothesameerror。ItisintheabuseofrationalismthatheseekstheoriginofagreatproportionoftheactsoftheJacobins。Thepagesinwhichhehasdealtwiththesubjectcontainmanytruths，however，andastheyareinotherwaysveryremarkable，I
　　reproducethemostimportantpassageshere：——
　　``Neitherexaggeratedself—lovenordogmaticreasoningisrareinthehumanspecies。InallcountriesthesetworootsoftheJacobinspiritsubsist，secretandindestructible……Attwentyyearsofage，whenayoungmanisenteringintotheworld，hisreasonisstimulatedsimultaneouslywithhispride。Inthefirstplace，whateversocietyhemaymovein，itiscontemptibletopurereason，forithasnotbeenconstructedbyaphilosophiclegislatoraccordingtoaprinciple，butsuccessivegenerationshavearrangeditaccordingtotheirmultipleandever—changingneeds。Itisnottheworkoflogic，butofhistory，andtheyoungreasonershrugshisshouldersatthesightofthisoldbuilding，whosesiteisarbitrary，whosearchitectureisincoherent，andwhoseinconveniencesareobvious……Themajorityofyoungpeople，aboveallthosewhohavetheirwaytomake，aremoreorlessJacobinonleavingcollege……
　　Jacobinismisbornofsocialdecompositionjustasmushroomsarebornofafermentingsoil。Considertheauthenticmonumentsofitsthought——thespeechesofRobespierreandSaint—Just，thedebatesoftheLegislativeAssemblyandtheConvention，theharangues，addresses，andreportsofGirondistsandMontagnards。
　　Neverdidmenspeaksomuchtosaysolittle；theemptyverbiageandswollenemphasisswampanytruththeremaybebeneaththeirmonotonyandtheirturgidity。TheJacobinisfullofrespectforthephantomsofhisreasoningbrain；inhiseyestheyaremorerealthanlivingmen，andtheirsuffrageistheonlysuffrageherecognises——hewillmarchonwardinallsincerityattheheadofaprocessionofimaginaryfollowers。Themillionsofmetaphysicalwillswhichhehascreatedintheimageofhisownwillsustainhimbytheirunanimousassent，andhewillprojectoutwards，likeachorusoftriumphandacclamation，theinwardechoofhisownvoice。’’
　　WhileadmiringTaine’sdescription，IthinkhehasnotexactlygraspedthepsychologyoftheJacobin。
　　ThemindofthetrueJacobin，atthetimeoftheRevolutionasnow，wascomposedofelementswhichwemustanalyseifwearetounderstanditsfunction。
　　ThisanalysiswillshowinthefirstplacethattheJacobinisnotarationalist，butabeliever。Farfrombuildinghisbeliefonreason，hemouldsreasontohisbelief，andalthoughhisspeechesaresteepedinrationalismheemploysitverylittleinhisthoughtsandhisconduct。
　　AJacobinwhoreasonedasmuchasheisaccusedofreasoningwouldbesometimesaccessibletothevoiceofreason。Now，observationproves，fromthetimeoftheRevolutiontoourowndays，thattheJacobinisneverinfluencedbyreasoning，howeverjust，anditispreciselyherethathisstrengthresides。
　　Andwhyishenotaccessibletoreason？Simplybecausehisvisionofthings，alwaysextremelylimited，doesnotpermitofhisresistingthepowerfulandpassionateimpulseswhichguidehim。
　　Thesetwoelements，feeblereasonandstrongpassions，wouldnotofthemselvesconstitutetheJacobinmind。Thereisanother。
　　Passionsupportsconvictions，buthardlyevercreatesthem。Now，thetrueJacobinhasforcibleconvictions。Whatistosustainthem？Herethemysticelementswhoseactionwehavealreadystudiedcomeintoplay。TheJacobinisamysticwhohasreplacedtheolddivinitiesbynewgods。Imbuedwiththepowerofwordsandformulae，heattributestotheseamysteriouspower。Toservetheseexigentdivinitieshedoesnotshrinkfromthemostviolentmeasures。ThelawsvotedbyourmodernJacobinsfurnishaproofofthisfact。
　　TheJacobinmentalityisfoundespeciallyinnarrowandpassionatecharacters。Itimplies，infact，anarrowandrigidmind，inaccessibletoallcriticismandtoallconsiderationsbutthoseoffaith。
　　ThemysticandaffectiveelementswhichdominatethemindoftheJacobincondemnhimtoanextremesimplicity。Graspingonlythesuperficialrelationsofthings，nothingpreventshimfromtakingforrealitiesthechimericalimageswhicharebornofhisimagination。Thesequenceofphenomenaandtheirresultsescapehim。Heneverraiseshiseyesfromhisdream。
　　Aswemaysee，itisnotbythedevelopmentofhislogicalreasonthattheJacobinexceeds。Hepossessesverylittlelogicofthiskind，andthereforeheoftenbecomesdangerous。WhereasuperiormanwouldhesitateorhalttheJacobin，whohasplacedhisfeeblereasonattheserviceofhisimpulses，goesforwardwithcertainty。
　　SothatalthoughtheJacobinisagreatreasoner，thisdoesnotmeanthatheisintheleastguidedbyreason。Whenheimaginesheisbeingledbyreasonitisreallyhispassionsandhismysticismthatleadhim。Likeallthosewhoareconvincedandhemmedinbythewallsoffaith，hecanneverescapetherefrom。
　　Atrueaggressivetheologian，heisastonishinglylikethedisciplesofCalvindescribedinapreviouschapter。Hypnotisedbytheirfaith，nothingcoulddeterthemfromtheirobject。Allthosewhocontradictedtheirarticlesoffaithwereconsideredworthyofdeath。Theytooseemedtobepowerfulreasoners。
　　Ignorant，liketheJacobins，ofthesecretforcesthatledthem，theybelievedthatreasonwastheirsoleguide，whileinrealitytheyweretheslavesofmysticismandpassion。
　　ThetrulyrationalisticJacobinwouldbeincomprehensible，andwouldmerelymakereasondespair。ThepassionateandmysticalJacobinis，onthecontrary，easilyintelligible。
　　Withthesethreeelements——averyweakreasoningpower，verystrongpassions，andanintensemysticism——wehavethetruepsychologicalcomponentsofthemindoftheJacobin。
　　CHAPTERIII
　　THEREVOLUTIONARYANDCRIMINALMENTALITIES
　　1。TheRevolutionaryMentality。
　　WehavejustseenthatthemysticelementsareoneofthecomponentsoftheJacobinmentality。Weshallnowseethattheyenterintoanotherformofmentalitywhichisalsoclearlydefined，therevolutionarymentality。
　　Inallagessocietieshavecontainedacertainnumberofrestlessspirits，unstableanddiscontented，readytorebelagainstanyestablishedorderofaffairs。Theyareactuatedbythemereloveofrevolt，andifsomemagicpowercouldrealisealltheirdesirestheywouldsimplyrevoltagain。
　　Thisspecialmentalityoftenresultsfromafaultyadaptationoftheindividualtohissurroundings，orfromanexcessofmysticism，butitmayalsobemerelyaquestionoftemperamentorarisefrompathologicaldisturbances。
　　Theneedofrevoltpresentsverydifferentdegreesofintensity，fromsimplediscontentexpressedinwordsdirectedagainstmenandthingstotheneedofdestroyingthem。Sometimestheindividualturnsuponhimselftherevolutionaryfrenzythathecannototherwiseexercise。Russiaisfullofthesemadmen，who，notcontentwithcommittingarsonorthrowingbombsathazardintothecrowd，finallymutilatethemselves，liketheSkopzisandotheranalogoussects。
　　Theseperpetualrebelsaregenerallyhighlysuggestiblebeings，whosemysticmentalityisobsessedbyfixedideas。Despitetheapparentenergyindicatedbytheiractionstheyarereallyweakcharacters，andareincapableofmasteringthemselvessufficientlytoresisttheimpulsesthatrulethem。Themysticspiritwhichanimatesthemfurnishespretextsfortheirviolence，andenablesthemtoregardthemselvesasgreatreformers。
　　Innormaltimestherebelswhicheverysocietycontainsarerestrainedbythelaws，bytheirenvironment——inshort，byalltheusualsocialconstraints，andthereforeremainundetected。
　　Butassoonasatimeofdisturbancebeginstheseconstraintsgrowweaker，andtherebelcangiveafreereigntohisinstincts。Hethenbecomestheaccreditedleaderofamovement。
　　Themotiveoftherevolutionmatterslittletohim；hewillgivehislifeindifferentlyfortheredflagorthewhite，orfortheliberationofacountrywhichhehasheardvaguelymentioned。
　　Therevolutionaryspiritisnotalwayspushedtotheextremeswhichrenderitdangerous。When，insteadofderivingfromaffectiveormysticimpulses，ithasanintellectualorigin，itmaybecomeasourceofprogress。Itisthankstothosespiritswhoaresufficientlyindependenttobeintellectuallyrevolutionarythatacivilisationisabletoescapefromtheyokeoftraditionandhabitwhenthisbecomestooheavy。Thesciences，arts，andindustriesespeciallyhaveprogressedbytheaidofsuchmen。Galileo，Lavoisier，Darwin，andPasteurweresuchrevolutionaries。
　　Althoughitisnotnecessarythatanationshouldpossessanylargenumberofsuchspirits，itisverynecessarythatitshouldpossesssome。Withoutthemmenwouldstillbelivingincaves。
　　Therevolutionaryaudacitywhichresultsindiscoveriesimpliesveryrarefaculties。Itnecessitatesnotablyanindependenceofmindsufficienttoescapefromtheinfluenceofcurrentopinions，andajudgementthatcangrasp，undersuperficialanalogies，thehiddenrealities。Thisformofrevolutionaryspiritiscreative，whilethatexaminedaboveisdestructive。
　　Therevolutionarymentalitymay，therefore，becomparedtocertainphysiologicalstatesinthelifeoftheindividualwhicharenormallyuseful，butwhich，whenexaggerated，takeapathologicalformwhichisalwayshurtful。
　　2。TheCriminalMentality。
　　Allthecivilisedsocietiesinevitablydragbehindthemaresidueofdegenerates，oftheunadapted，ofpersonsaffectedbyvarioustaints。Vagabonds，beggars，fugitivesfromjustice，thieves，assassins，andstarvingcreaturesthatlivefromdaytoday，mayconstitutethecriminalpopulationofthegreatcities。Inordinarytimesthesewasteproductsofcivilisationaremoreorlessrestrainedbythepolice。Duringrevolutionnothingrestrainsthem，andtheycaneasilygratifytheirinstinctstomurderandplunder。Inthedregsofsocietytherevolutionariesofalltimesaresureoffindingrecruits。Eageronlytokillandtoplunder，littlematterstothemthecausetheyaresworntodefend。Ifthechancesofmurderandpillagearebetterinthepartyattacked，theywillpromptlychangetheircolours。
　　Tothesecriminals，properlysocalled，theincurableplagueofallsocieties，wemustaddtheclassofsemi—criminals。
　　Wrongdoersonoccasion，theyneverrebelsolongasthefearoftheestablishedorderrestrainsthem，butassoonasitweakenstheyenrolthemselvesinthearmyofrevolution。
　　Thesetwocategories——habitualandoccasionalcriminals——formanarmyofdisorderwhichisfitfornothingbutthecreationofdisorder。Alltherevolutionaries，allthefoundersofreligiousorpoliticalleagues，haveconstantlycountedontheirsupport。
　　Wehavealreadystatedthatthispopulation，withitscriminalmentality，exercisedaconsiderableinfluenceduringtheFrenchRevolution。Italwaysfiguredinthefrontrankoftheriotswhichoccurredalmostdaily。CertainhistorianshavespokenwithrespectandemotionofthewayinwhichthesovereignpeopleenforceditswillupontheConvention，invadingthehallarmedwithpikes，thepointsofwhichweresometimesdecoratedwithnewlyseveredheads。Ifweanalysetheelementscomposingthepretendeddelegationsofthesovereignpeople，weshallfindthat，apartfromasmallnumberofsimplesoulswhosubmittedtotheimpulsesoftheleaders，themasswasalmostentirelyformedofthebanditsofwhomIhavebeenspeaking。TothemwereduetheinnumerablemurdersofwhichthemassacresofSeptemberandthekillingofthePrincessedeLamballeweremerelytypical。
　　TheyterrorisedallthegreatAssemblies，fromtheConstituentAssemblytotheConvention，andfortenyearstheyhelpedtoravageFrance。Ifbysomemiraclethisarmyofcriminalscouldhavebeeneliminated，theprogressoftheRevolutionwouldhavebeenverydifferent。Theystaineditwithbloodfromitsdawntoitsdecline。Reasoncoulddonothingwiththembuttheycoulddomuchagainstreason。
　　CHAPTERIV
　　THEPSYCHOLOGYOFREVOLUTIONARYCROWDS
　　1。GeneralCharacteristicsoftheCrowd。
　　Whatevertheirorigin，revolutionsdonotproducetheirfulleffectsuntiltheyhavepenetratedthesoulofthemultitude。
　　Theythereforerepresentaconsequenceofthepsychologyofcrowds。
　　AlthoughIhavestudiedcollectivepsychologyatlengthinanothervolume，Imusthererecallitsprincipallaws。
　　Man，aspartofamultitude，isaverydifferentbeingfromthesamemanasanisolatedindividual。Hisconsciousindividualityvanishesintheunconsciouspersonalityofthecrowd。
　　Materialcontactisnotabsolutelynecessarytoproduceintheindividualthementalityofthecrowd。Commonpassionsandsentiments，provokedbycertainevents，areoftensufficienttocreateit。
　　Thecollectivemind，momentarilyformed，representsaveryspecialkindofaggregate。Itschiefpeculiarityisthatitisentirelydominatedbyunconsciouselements，andissubjecttoapeculiarcollectivelogic。
　　Amongtheothercharacteristicsofcrowds，wemustnotetheirinfinitecredulityandexaggeratedsensibility，theirshort—
　　sightedness，andtheirincapacitytorespondtotheinfluencesofreason。Affirmation，contagion，repetition，andprestigeconstitutealmosttheonlymeansofpersuadingthem。Realityandexperiencehavenoeffectuponthem。Themultitudewilladmitanything；nothingisimpossibleintheeyesofthecrowd。
　　Byreasonoftheextremesensibilityofcrowds，theirsentiments，goodorbad，arealwaysexaggerated。Thisexaggerationincreasesstillfurtherintimesofrevolution。Theleastexcitementwillthenleadthemultitudetoactwiththeutmostfury。Theircredulity，sogreateveninthenormalstate，isstillfurtherincreased；themostimprobablestatementsareaccepted。ArthurYoungrelatesthatwhenhevisitedthespringsnearClermont，atthetimeoftheFrenchRevolution，hisguidewasstoppedbythepeople，whowerepersuadedthathehadcomebyorderoftheQueentomineandblowupthetown。ThemosthorribletalesconcerningtheRoyalFamilywerecirculated，depictingitasanestofghoulsandvampires。
　　Thesevariouscharacteristicsshowthatmaninthecrowddescendstoaverylowdegreeinthescaleofcivilisation。Hebecomesasavage，withallasavage’sfaultsandqualities，withallhismomentaryviolence，enthusiasm，andheroism。Intheintellectualdomainacrowdisalwaysinferiortotheisolatedunit。Inthemoralandsentimentaldomainitmaybehissuperior。Acrowdwillcommitacrimeasreadilyasanactofabnegation。
　　Personalcharacteristicsvanishinthecrowd，whichexertsanextraordinaryinfluenceupontheindividualswhichformit。Themiserbecomesgenerous，thescepticabeliever，thehonestmanacriminal，thecowardahero。ExamplesofsuchtransformationsaboundedduringthegreatRevolution。
　　Aspartofajuryoraparliament，thecollectivemanrendersverdictsorpasseslawsofwhichhewouldneverhavedreamedinhisisolatedcondition。
　　Oneofthemostnotableconsequencesoftheinfluenceofacollectivityupontheindividualswhocomposeitistheunificationoftheirsentimentsandwills。Thispsychologicalunityconfersaremarkableforceuponcrowds。
　　Theformationofsuchamentalunityresultschieflyfromthefactthatinacrowdgesturesandactionsareextremelycontagious。Acclamationsofhatred，fury，orloveareimmediatelyapprovedandrepeated。
　　Whatistheoriginofthesecommonsentiments，thiscommonwill？
　　Theyarepropagatedbycontagion，butapointofdepartureisnecessarybeforethiscontagioncantakeeffect。Withoutaleaderthecrowdisanamorphousentityincapableofaction。
　　AknowledgeofthelawsrelatingtothepsychologyofcrowdsisindispensabletotheinterpretationoftheelementsofourRevolution，andtoacomprehensionoftheconductofrevolutionaryassemblies，andthesingulartransformationsoftheindividualswhoformpartofthem。Pushedbytheunconsciousforcesofthecollectivesoul，theymoreoftenthannotsaywhattheydidnotintend，andvotewhattheywouldnothavewishedtovote。
　　Althoughthelawsofcollectivepsychologyhavesometimesbeendivinedinstinctivelybysuperiorstatesmen，themajorityofGovernmentshavenotunderstoodanddonotunderstandthem。Itisbecausetheydonotunderstandthemthatsomanyofthemhavefallensoeasily。WhenweseethefacilitywithwhichcertainGovernmentswereoverthrownbyaninsignificantriot——ashappenedinthecaseofthemonarchyofLouis—Philippe——thedangersofanignoranceofcollectivepsychologyareevident。
　　Themarshalincommandofthetroopsin1848，whichweremorethansufficienttodefendtheking，certainlydidnotunderstandthatthemomentheallowedthecrowdtominglewiththetroopsthelatter，paralysedbysuggestionandcontagion，wouldceasetodotheirduty。Neitherdidheknowthatasthemultitudeisextremelysensibletoprestigeitneedsagreatdisplayofforcetoimpressit，andthatsuchadisplaywillatoncesuppresshostiledemonstrations。Hewasequallyignorantofthefactthatallgatheringsshouldbedispersedimmediately。Allthesethingshavebeentaughtbyexperience，butin1848theselessonshadnotbeengrasped。AtthetimeofthegreatRevolutionthepsychologyofcrowdswasevenlessunderstood。
　　2。HowtheStabilityoftheRacialMindlimitstheOscillationsoftheMindoftheCrowd。
　　Apeoplecaninasensebelikenedtoacrowd。Itpossessescertaincharacteristics，buttheoscillationsofthesecharacteristicsarelimitedbythesoulormindoftherace。Themindoftheracehasafixityunknowntothetransitorymindofthecrowd。
　　Whenapeoplepossessesanancestralsoulestablishedbyalongpastthesoulofthecrowdisalwaysdominatedthereby。
　　Apeoplediffersfromacrowdalsointhatitiscomposedofacollectionofgroups，eachhavingdifferentinterestsandpassions。Inacrowdproperlyso—called——apopularassembly，forexample——thereareunitieswhichmaybelongtoverydifferentsocialcategories。
　　Apeoplesometimesseemsasmobileasacrowd，butwemustnotforgetthatbehinditsmobility，itsenthusiasms，itsviolenceanddestructiveness，theextremelytenaciousandconservativeinstinctsoftheracialmindpersist。ThehistoryoftheRevolutionandthecenturywhichhasfollowedshowshowtheconservativespiritfinallyovercomesthespiritofdestruction。
　　Morethanonesystemofgovernmentwhichthepeoplehasshatteredhasbeenrestoredbythepeople。
　　Itisnotaseasytoworkuponthemindofthepeople——thatis，themindoftherace——asonthemindofacrowd。Themeansofactionareindirectandslower（journals，conferences，speeches，books，&c。）。Theelementsofpersuasionalwayscomeundertheheadingsalreadygiven：affirmation，repetition，prestige，andcontagion。
　　Mentalcontagionmayaffectawholepeopleinstantaneously，butmoreoftenitoperatesslowly，creepingfromgrouptogroup。
　　ThuswastheReformationpropagatedinFrance。
　　Apeopleisfarlessexcitablethanacrowd；butcertainevents——
　　nationalinsults，threatsofinvasion，&c。——mayarouseitinstantly。SuchaphenomenonwasobservedonseveraloccasionsduringtheRevolution，notablyatthetimeoftheinsolentmanifestoissuedbytheDukeofBrunswick。TheDukeknewlittleindeedofthepsychologyoftheFrenchracewhenheprofferedhisthreats。NotonlydidheconsiderablyprejudicethecauseofLouisXVI。；buthealsodamagedhisown，sincehisinterventionraisedfromthesoilanarmyeagertofighthim。
　　Thissuddenexplosionoffeelingthroughoutawholeracehasbeenobservedinallnations。NapoleondidnotunderstandthepowerofsuchexplosionswhenheinvadedSpainandRussia。Onemayeasilydisaggregatethefacilemindofacrowd，butonecandonothingbeforethepermanentsoulofarace。CertainlytheRussianpeasantisaveryindifferentbeing，grossandnarrowbynature，yetatthefirstnewsofinvasionhewastransformed。
　　OnemayjudgeofthisfactonreadingaletterwrittenbyElizabeth，wifeoftheEmperorAlexanderI。
　　``FromthemomentwhenNapoleonhadcrossedourfrontiersitwasasthoughanelectricsparkhadspreadthroughallRussia；andiftheimmensityofitsareahadmadeitpossibleforthenewstopenetratesimultaneouslytoeverycorneroftheEmpireacryofindignationwouldhavearisensoterriblethatIbelieveitwouldhaveresoundedtotheendsoftheearth。AsNapoleonadvancesthisfeelingisgrowingyetstronger。Oldmenwhohavelostallornearlyalltheirgoodsaresaying：`Weshallfindawayofliving。Anythingispreferabletoashamefulpeace。’Womenallofwhosekinareinthearmyregardthedangerstheyarerunningassecondary，andfearnothingbutpeace。Happilythispeace，whichwouldbethedeath—warrantofRussia，willnotbenegotiated；theEmperordoesnotconceiveofsuchanidea，andevenifhewouldhecouldnot。Thisistheheroicsideofourposition。’’
　　TheEmpressdescribestohermotherthetwofollowingtraits，whichgivesomeideaofthedegreeofresistanceofwhichthesouloftheRussianiscapable：——
　　``TheFrenchmenhadcaughtsomeunhappypeasantsinMoscow，whomtheythoughttoforcetoserveintheirranks，andinorderthattheyshouldnotbeabletoescapetheybrandedtheirhandsasonebrandshorsesinthestud。Oneofthemaskedwhatthismarkmeant；hewastolditsignifiedthathewasaFrenchsoldier。
　　`What！IamasoldieroftheEmperoroftheFrench！’hesaid。
　　Andimmediatelyhetookhishatchet，cutoffhishand，andthrewitatthefeetofthosepresent，saying，`Takeit——there’syourmark！’
　　``AtMoscow，too，theFrenchhadtakenascoreofpeasantsofwhomtheywishedtomakeanexampleinordertofrightenthevillagers，whowerepickingofftheFrenchforagingpartiesandweremakingwaraswellasthedetachmentsofregulartroops。
　　TheyrangedthemagainstawallandreadtheirsentenceinRussian。Theywaitedforthemtobegformercy：insteadofthattheytookfarewellofoneanotherandmadetheirsignofthecross。TheFrenchfiredonthefirstofthem；theywaitedfortheresttobegforpardonintheirterror，andtopromisetochangetheirconduct。Theyfiredonthesecond，andonthethird，andsoonallthetwenty，withoutasingleonehavingattemptedtoimploretheclemencyoftheenemy。NapoleonhasnotoncehadthepleasureofprofaningthiswordinRussia。’’
　　Amongthecharacteristicsofthepopularmindwemustmentionthatinallpeoplesandallagesithasbeensaturatedwithmysticism。Thepeoplewillalwaysbeconvincedthatsuperiorbeings——divinities，Governments，orgreatmen——havethepowertochangethingsatwill。Thismysticsideproducesanintenseneedofadoration。Thepeoplemusthaveafetich，eitheramanoradoctrine。Thisiswhy，whenthreatenedwithanarchy，itcallsforaMessiahtosaveit。
　　Likethecrowd，butmoreslowly，thepeoplereadilypassesfromadorationtohatred。Amanmaybetheheroofthepeopleatoneperiod，andfinallyearnitscurses。Thesevariationsofpopularopinionconcerningpoliticalpersonalitiesmaybeobservedinalltimes。ThehistoryofCromwellfurnishesuswithaverycuriousexample。[5]
　　[5]Afterhavingoverthrownadynastyandrefusedacrownhewasburiedlikeakingamongkings。Twoyearslaterhisbodywastornfromthetomb，andhishead，cutoffbytheexecutioner，wasexposedabovethegateoftheHouseofParliament。Alittlewhileagoastatuewasraisedtohim。Theoldanarchistturnedautocratnowfiguresinthegalleryofdemigods。
　　4。TheRoleoftheLeaderinRevolutionaryMovements。
　　Allthevarietiesofcrowds——homogeneousandheterogeneous，assemblies，peoples，clubs，&c。——are，aswehaveoftenrepeated，aggregatesincapableofunityandactionsolongastheyfindnomastertoleadthem。
　　Ihaveshownelsewhere，makinguseofcertainphysiologicalexperiments，thattheunconsciouscollectivemindofthecrowdseemsboundupwiththemindoftheleader。Thelattergivesitasinglewillandimposesabsoluteobedience。
　　Theleaderactsespeciallythroughsuggestion。Hissuccessdependsonhisfashionofprovokingthissuggestion。Manyexperimentshaveshowntowhatpointacollectivitymaybesubjectedtosuggestion。[6]
　　[6]AmongthenumerousexperimentsmadetoprovethisfactoneofthemostremarkablewasperformedonthepupilsofhisclassbyProfessorGlossonandpublishedintheRevueScientifiqueforOctober28，1899。
　　``Ipreparedabottlefilledwithdistilledwatercarefullywrappedincottonandpackedinabox。AfterseveralotherexperimentsIstatedthatIwishedtomeasuretherapiditywithwhichanodourwoulddiffuseitselfthroughtheair，andaskedthosepresenttoraisetheirhandsthemomenttheyperceivedtheodour……Itookoutthebottleandpouredthewateronthecotton，turningmyheadawayduringtheoperation，thentookupastop—watchandawaitedtheresult……IexplainedthatIwasabsolutelysurethatnoonepresenthadeversmelttheodourofthechemicalcompositionIhadspilt……Attheendoffifteensecondsthemajorityofthoseinfronthadhelduptheirhands，andinfortysecondstheodourhadreachedthebackofthehallbyfairlyregularwaves。Aboutthree—quartersofthosepresentdeclaredthattheyperceivedtheodour。Alargernumberwoulddoubtlesshavesuccumbedtosuggestion，ifattheendofaminuteIhadnotbeenforcedtostoptheexperiment，someofthoseinthefrontrowsbeingunpleasantlyaffectedbytheodour，andwishingtoleavethehall。’’
　　Accordingtothesuggestionsoftheleaders，themultitudewillbecalm，furious，criminal，orheroic。Thesevarioussuggestionsmaysometimesappeartopresentarationalaspect，buttheywillonlyappeartobereasonable。Acrowdisinrealityinaccessibletoreason；theonlyideascapableofinfluencingitwillalwaysbesentimentsevokedintheformofimages。
　　ThehistoryoftheRevolutionshowsoneverypagehoweasilythemultitudefollowsthemostcontradictoryimpulsesgivenbyitsdifferentleaders。WeseeitapplaudjustasvigorouslyatthetriumphoftheGirondists，theHebertists，theDantonists，andtheTerroristsasattheirsuccessivedownfalls。Onemaybequitesure，also，thatthecrowdunderstoodnothingoftheseevents。
　　Atadistanceonecanonlyconfusedlyperceivethepartplayedbytheleaders，fortheycommonlyworkintheshade。Tograspthisclearlywemuststudythemincontemporaryevents。Weshallthenseehowreadilytheleadercanprovokethemostviolentpopularmovements。Wearenotthinkinghereofthestrikesofthepostmenorrailwaymen，inwhichthediscontentoftheemployeesmightintervene，butofeventsinwhichthecrowdwasnotintheleastinterested。Such，forexample，wasthepopularrisingprovokedbyafewSocialistleadersamidsttheParisianpopulaceonthemorrowoftheexecutionofFerrer，inSpain。TheFrenchcrowdhadneverheardofFerrer。InSpainhisexecutionwasalmostunnoticed。InParistheincitementsofafewleaderssufficedtohurlaregularpopulararmyupontheSpanishEmbassy，withtheintentionofburningit。Partofthegarrisonhadtobeemployedtoprotectit。Energeticallyrepulsed，theassailantscontentedthemselveswithsackingafewshopsandbuildingsomebarricades。
　　Atthesametime，theleadersgaveanotherproofoftheirinfluence。Finallyunderstandingthattheburningofaforeignembassymightbeextremelydangerous，theyorderedapacificdemonstrationforthefollowingday，andwereasfaithfullyobeyedasiftheyhadorderedthemostviolentriot。NoexamplecouldbettershowtheimportanceofleadersandthesubmissionofthecrowdThehistorianswho，fromMichelettoM。Aulard，haverepresentedtherevolutionarycrowdashavingactedonitsowninitiative，withoutleaders，donotcomprehenditspsychology。