Andisnotamanreproachedforflatteryandmeannesswhosubordinatesthespiritedanimaltotheunrulymonster，and，forthesakeofmoney，ofwhichhecanneverhaveenough，habituateshiminthedaysofhisyouthtobetrampledinthemire，andfrombeingaliontobecomeamonkey？
　　True，hesaid。
　　AndwhyaremeanemploymentsandmanualartsareproachOnlybecausetheyimplyanaturalweaknessofthehigherprinciple；theindividualisunabletocontrolthecreatureswithinhim，buthastocourtthem，andhisgreatstudyishowtoflatterthem。
　　Suchappearstobethereason。
　　Andtherefore，beingdesirousofplacinghimunderarulelikethatofthebest，wesaythatheoughttobetheservantofthebest，inwhomtheDivinerules；not，asThrasymachussupposed，totheinjuryoftheservant，butbecauseeveryonehadbetterberuledbydivinewisdomdwellingwithinhim；or，ifthisbeimpossible，thenbyanexternalauthority，inorderthatwemaybeall，asfaraspossible，underthesamegovernment，friendsandequals。
　　True，hesaid。
　　Andthisisclearlyseentobetheintentionofthelaw，whichistheallyofthewholecity；andisseenalsointheauthoritywhichweexerciseoverchildren，andtherefusaltoletthembefreeuntilwehaveestablishedinthemaprincipleanalogoustotheconstitutionofastate，andbycultivationofthishigherelementhavesetupintheirheartsaguardianandrulerlikeourown，andwhenthisisdonetheymaygotheirways。
　　Yes，hesaid，thepurposeofthelawismanifest。
　　Fromwhatpointofview，then，andonwhatgroundcanwesaythatamanisprofitedbyinjusticeorintemperanceorotherbaseness，whichwillmakehimaworseman，eventhoughheacquiremoneyorpowerbyhiswickedness？
　　Fromnopointofviewatall。
　　Whatshallheprofit，ifhisinjusticebeundetectedandunpunished？
　　Hewhoisundetectedonlygetsworse，whereashewhoisdetectedandpunishedhasthebrutalpartofhisnaturesilencedandhumanized；thegentlerelementinhimisliberated，andhiswholesoulisperfectedandennobledbytheacquirementofjusticeandtemperanceandwisdom，morethanthebodyeverisbyreceivinggiftsofbeauty，strengthandhealth，inproportionasthesoulismorehonourablethanthebody。
　　Certainly，hesaid。
　　Tothisnoblerpurposethemanofunderstandingwilldevotetheenergiesofhislife。Andinthefirstplace，hewillhonourstudieswhichimpressthesequalitiesonhissoulanddisregardothers？
　　Clearly，hesaid。
　　Inthenextplace，hewillregulatehisbodilyhabitandtraining，andsofarwillhebefromyieldingtobrutalandirrationalpleasures，thathewillregardevenhealthasquiteasecondarymatter；hisfirstobjectwillbenotthathemaybefairorstrongorwell，unlessheislikelytherebytogaintemperance，buthewillalwaysdesiresotoattemperthebodyastopreservetheharmonyofthesoul？
　　Certainlyhewill，ifhehastruemusicinhim。
　　Andintheacquisitionofwealththereisaprincipleoforderandharmonywhichhewillalsoobserve；hewillnotallowhimselftobedazzledbythefoolishapplauseoftheworld，andheapuprichestohisowninfiniteharm？
　　Certainlynot，hesaid。
　　Hewilllookatthecitywhichiswithinhim，andtakeheedthatnodisorderoccurinit，suchasmightariseeitherfromsuperfluityorfromwant；anduponthisprinciplehewillregulatehispropertyandgainorspendaccordingtohismeans。
　　Verytrue。
　　And，forthesamereason，hewillgladlyacceptandenjoysuchhonoursashedeemslikelytomakehimabetterman；butthose，whetherprivateorpublic，whicharelikelytodisorderhislife，hewillavoid？
　　Then，ifthatishismotive，hewillnotbeastatesman。
　　BythedogofEgypt，hewill！inthecitywhich’shisownhecertainlywill，thoughinthelandofhisbirthperhapsnot，unlesshehaveadivinecall。
　　Iunderstand；youmeanthathewillbearulerinthecityofwhichwearethefounders，andwhichexistsinideaonly；forIdonotbelievethatthereissuchanoneanywhereonearth？
　　Inheaven，Ireplied，thereislaidupapatternofit，methinks，whichhewhodesiresmaybehold，andbeholding，maysethisownhouseinorder。Butwhethersuchanoneexists，oreverwillexistinfact，isnomatter；forhewillliveafterthemannerofthatcity，havingnothingtodowithanyother。
　　Ithinkso，hesaid。
　　BOOKX
　　SOCRATES—GLAUCON
　　OFTHEmanyexcellenceswhichIperceiveintheorderofourState，thereisnonewhichuponreflectionpleasesmebetterthantheruleaboutpoetry。
　　Towhatdoyourefer？
　　Totherejectionofimitativepoetry，whichcertainlyoughtnottobereceived；asIseefarmoreclearlynowthatthepartsofthesoulhavebeendistinguished。
　　Whatdoyoumean？
　　Speakinginconfidence，forIshouldnotliketohavemywordsrepeatedtothetragediansandtherestoftheimitativetribe——butI
　　donotmindsayingtoyou，thatallpoeticalimitationsareruinoustotheunderstandingofthehearers，andthattheknowledgeoftheirtruenatureistheonlyantidotetothem。
　　Explainthepurportofyourremark。
　　Well，Iwilltellyou，althoughIhavealwaysfrommyearliestyouthhadanaweandloveofHomer，whichevennowmakesthewordsfalteronmylips，forheisthegreatcaptainandteacherofthewholeofthatcharmingtragiccompany；butamanisnottobereverencedmorethanthetruth，andthereforeIwillspeakout。
　　Verygood，hesaid。
　　Listentomethen，orrather，answerme。
　　Putyourquestion。
　　Canyoutellmewhatimitationis？forIreallydonotknow。
　　Alikelything，then，thatIshouldknow。
　　Whynot？forthedullereyemayoftenseeathingsoonerthanthekeener。
　　Verytrue，hesaid；butinyourpresence，evenifIhadanyfaintnotion，Icouldnotmustercouragetoutterit。Willyouenquireyourself？
　　Wellthen，shallwebegintheenquiryinourusualmanner：
　　Wheneveranumberofindividualshaveacommonname，weassumethemtohavealsoacorrespondingideaorform。Doyouunderstandme？
　　Ido。
　　Letustakeanycommoninstance；therearebedsandtablesintheworld——plentyofthem，aretherenot？
　　Yes。
　　Butthereareonlytwoideasorformsofthem——onetheideaofabed，theotherofatable。
　　True。
　　Andthemakerofeitherofthemmakesabedorhemakesatableforouruse，inaccordancewiththeidea——thatisourwayofspeakinginthisandsimilarinstances——butnoartificermakestheideasthemselves：howcouldhe？
　　Impossible。
　　Andthereisanotherartist，——Ishouldliketoknowwhatyouwouldsayofhim。
　　Whoishe？
　　Onewhoisthemakerofalltheworksofallotherworkmen。
　　Whatanextraordinaryman！
　　Waitalittle，andtherewillbemorereasonforyoursayingso。Forthisishewhoisabletomakenotonlyvesselsofeverykind，butplantsandanimals，himselfandallotherthings——theearthandheaven，andthethingswhichareinheavenorundertheearth；hemakesthegodsalso。
　　Hemustbeawizardandnomistake。
　　Oh！youareincredulous，areyou？Doyoumeanthatthereisnosuchmakerorcreator，orthatinonesensetheremightbeamakerofallthesethingsbutinanothernot？Doyouseethatthereisawayinwhichyoucouldmakethemallyourself？
　　Whatway？
　　Aneasywayenough；orrather，therearemanywaysinwhichthefeatmightbequicklyandeasilyaccomplished，nonequickerthanthatofturningamirrorroundandround——youwouldsoonenoughmakethesunandtheheavens，andtheearthandyourself，andotheranimalsandplants，andallthe，otherthingsofwhichwewerejustnowspeaking，inthemirror。
　　Yes，hesaid；buttheywouldbeappearancesonly。
　　Verygood，Isaid，youarecomingtothepointnow。Andthepaintertoois，asIconceive，justsuchanother——acreatorofappearances，ishenot？
　　Ofcourse。
　　ButthenIsupposeyouwillsaythatwhathecreatesisuntrue。
　　Andyetthereisasenseinwhichthepainteralsocreatesabed？
　　Yes，hesaid，butnotarealbed。
　　Andwhatofthemakerofthebed？Wereyounotsayingthathetoomakes，nottheideawhich，accordingtoourview，istheessenceofthebed，butonlyaparticularbed？
　　Yes，Idid。
　　Thenifhedoesnotmakethatwhichexistshecannotmaketrueexistence，butonlysomesemblanceofexistence；andifanyoneweretosaythattheworkofthemakerofthebed，orofanyotherworkman，hasrealexistence，hecouldhardlybesupposedtobespeakingthetruth。
　　Atanyrate，hereplied，philosopherswouldsaythathewasnotspeakingthetruth。
　　Nowonder，then，thathisworktooisanindistinctexpressionoftruth。
　　Nowonder。
　　Supposenowthatbythelightoftheexamplesjustofferedweenquirewhothisimitatoris？
　　Ifyouplease。
　　Wellthen，herearethreebeds：oneexistinginnature，whichismadebyGod，asIthinkthatwemaysay——fornooneelsecanbethemaker？
　　No。
　　Thereisanotherwhichistheworkofthecarpenter？
　　Yes。
　　Andtheworkofthepainterisathird？
　　Yes。
　　Beds，then，areofthreekinds，andtherearethreeartistswhosuperintendthem：God，themakerofthebed，andthepainter？
　　Yes，therearethreeofthem。
　　God，whetherfromchoiceorfromnecessity，madeonebedinnatureandoneonly；twoormoresuchidealbedsneithereverhavebeennoreverwillbemadebyGod。
　　Whyisthat？
　　BecauseevenifHehadmadebuttwo，athirdwouldstillappearbehindthemwhichbothofthemwouldhavefortheiridea，andthatwouldbetheidealbedandthetwoothers。
　　Verytrue，hesaid。
　　Godknewthis，andHedesiredtobetherealmakerofarealbed，notaparticularmakerofaparticularbed，andthereforeHecreatedabedwhichisessentiallyandbynatureoneonly。
　　Sowebelieve。
　　Shallwe，then，speakofHimasthenaturalauthorormakerofthebed？
　　Yes，hereplied；inasmuchasbythenaturalprocessofcreationHeistheauthorofthisandofallotherthings。
　　Andwhatshallwesayofthecarpenter——isnothealsothemakerofthebed？
　　Yes。
　　Butwouldyoucallthepainteracreatorandmaker？
　　Certainlynot。
　　Yetifheisnotthemaker，whatisheinrelationtothebed？
　　Ithink，hesaid，thatwemayfairlydesignatehimastheimitatorofthatwhichtheothersmake。
　　Good，Isaid；thenyoucallhimwhoisthirdinthedescentfromnatureanimitator？
　　Certainly，hesaid。
　　Andthetragicpoetisanimitator，andtherefore，likeallotherimitators，heisthriceremovedfromthekingandfromthetruth？
　　Thatappearstobeso。
　　Thenabouttheimitatorweareagreed。Andwhataboutthepainter？
　　——Iwouldliketoknowwhetherhemaybethoughttoimitatethatwhichoriginallyexistsinnature，oronlythecreationsofartists？
　　Thelatter。
　　Astheyareorastheyappear？Youhavestilltodeterminethis。
　　Whatdoyoumean？
　　Imean，thatyoumaylookatabedfromdifferentpointsofview，obliquelyordirectlyorfromanyotherpointofview，andthebedwillappeardifferent，butthereisnodifferenceinreality。Andthesameofallthings。
　　Yes，hesaid，thedifferenceisonlyapparent。
　　Nowletmeaskyouanotherquestion：Whichistheartofpaintingdesignedtobe——animitationofthingsastheyare，orastheyappear——ofappearanceorofreality？
　　Ofappearance。
　　Thentheimitator，Isaid，isalongwayoffthetruth，andcandoallthingsbecausehelightlytouchesonasmallpartofthem，andthatpartanimage。Forexample：Apainterwillpaintacobbler，carpenter，oranyotherartist，thoughheknowsnothingoftheirarts；
　　and，ifheisagoodartist，hemaydeceivechildrenorsimplepersons，whenheshowsthemhispictureofacarpenterfromadistance，andtheywillfancythattheyarelookingatarealcarpenter。
　　Certainly。
　　Andwheneveranyoneinformsusthathehasfoundamanknowsallthearts，andallthingselsethatanybodyknows，andeverysinglethingwithahigherdegreeofaccuracythananyotherman——whoevertellsusthis，Ithinkthatwecanonlyimaginetobeasimplecreaturewhoislikelytohavebeendeceivedbysomewizardoractorwhomhemet，andwhomhethoughtall—knowing，becausehehimselfwasunabletoanalysethenatureofknowledgeandignoranceandimitation。
　　Mosttrue。
　　Andso，whenwehearpersonssayingthatthetragedians，andHomer，whoisattheirhead，knowalltheartsandallthingshuman，virtueaswellasvice，anddivinethingstoo，forthatthegoodpoetcannotcomposewellunlessheknowshissubject，andthathewhohasnotthisknowledgecanneverbeapoet，weoughttoconsiderwhetherherealsotheremaynotbeasimilarillusion。Perhapstheymayhavecomeacrossimitatorsandbeendeceivedbythem；theymaynothaverememberedwhentheysawtheirworksthatthesewerebutimitationsthriceremovedfromthetruth，andcouldeasilybemadewithoutanyknowledgeofthetruth，becausetheyareappearancesonlyandnotrealities？Or，afterall，theymaybeintheright，andpoetsdoreallyknowthethingsaboutwhichtheyseemtothemanytospeaksowell？
　　Thequestion，hesaid，shouldbyallmeansbeconsidered。
　　Nowdoyousupposethatifapersonwereabletomaketheoriginalaswellastheimage，hewouldseriouslydevotehimselftotheimage—makingbranch？Wouldheallowimitationtobetherulingprincipleofhislife，asifhehadnothinghigherinhim？
　　Ishouldsaynot。
　　Therealartist，whoknewwhathewasimitating，wouldbeinterestedinrealitiesandnotinimitations；andwoulddesiretoleaveasmemorialsofhimselfworksmanyandfair；and，insteadofbeingtheauthorofencomiums，hewouldprefertobethethemeofthem。
　　Yes，hesaid，thatwouldbetohimasourceofmuchgreaterhonourandprofit。
　　Then，Isaid，wemustputaquestiontoHomer；notaboutmedicine，oranyoftheartstowhichhispoemsonlyincidentallyrefer：wearenotgoingtoaskhim，oranyotherpoet，whetherhehascuredpatientslikeAsclepius，orleftbehindhimaschoolofmedicinesuchastheAsclepiadswere，orwhetherheonlytalksaboutmedicineandotherartsatsecondhand；butwehavearighttoknowrespectingmilitarytactics，politics，education，whicharethechiefestandnoblestsubjectsofhispoems，andwemayfairlyaskhimaboutthem。’FriendHomer，’thenwesaytohim，’ifyouareonlyinthesecondremovefromtruthinwhatyousayofvirtue，andnotinthethird——notanimagemakerorimitator——andifyouareabletodiscernwhatpursuitsmakemenbetterorworseinprivateorpubliclife，telluswhatStatewaseverbettergovernedbyyourhelp？ThegoodorderofLacedaemonisduetoLycurgus，andmanyothercitiesgreatandsmallhavebeensimilarlybenefitedbyothers；butwhosaysthatyouhavebeenagoodlegislatortothemandhavedonethemanygood？ItalyandSicilyboastofCharondas，andthereisSolonwhoisrenownedamongus；butwhatcityhasanythingtosayaboutyou？’Isthereanycitywhichhemightname？
　　Ithinknot，saidGlaucon；noteventheHomeridsthemselvespretendthathewasalegislator。
　　Well，butisthereanywaronrecordwhichwascarriedonsuccessfullybyhim，oraidedbyhiscounsels，whenhewasalive？
　　Thereisnot。
　　Oristhereanyinventionofhis，applicabletotheartsortohumanlife，suchasThalestheMilesianorAnacharsistheScythian，andotheringeniousmenhaveconceived，whichisattributedtohim？
　　Thereisabsolutelynothingofthekind。
　　But，ifHomerneverdidanypublicservice，washeprivatelyaguideorteacherofany？Hadheinhislifetimefriendswholovedtoassociatewithhim，andwhohandeddowntoposterityanHomericwayoflife，suchaswasestablishedbyPythagoraswhowassogreatlybelovedforhiswisdom，andwhosefollowersaretothisdayquitecelebratedfortheorderwhichwasnamedafterhim？
　　Nothingofthekindisrecordedofhim。Forsurely，Socrates，Creophylus，thecompanionofHomer，thatchildofflesh，whosenamealwaysmakesuslaugh，mightbemorejustlyridiculedforhisstupidity，if，asissaid，Homerwasgreatlyneglectedbyhimandothersinhisowndaywhenhewasalive？
　　Yes，Ireplied，thatisthetradition。Butcanyouimagine，Glaucon，thatifHomerhadreallybeenabletoeducateandimprovemankind——ifhehadpossessedknowledgeandnotbeenamereimitator——canyouimagine，Isay，thathewouldnothavehadmanyfollowers，andbeenhonouredandlovedbythem？ProtagorasofAbdera，andProdicusofCeos，andahostofothers，haveonlytowhispertotheircontemporaries：’YouwillneverbeabletomanageeitheryourownhouseoryourownStateuntilyouappointustobeyourministersofeducation’——andthisingeniousdeviceoftheirshassuchaneffectinmakingthemlovethemthattheircompanionsallbutcarrythemaboutontheirshoulders。AndisitconceivablethatthecontemporariesofHomer，oragainofHesiod，wouldhaveallowedeitherofthemtogoaboutasrhapsodists，iftheyhadreallybeenabletomakemankindvirtuous？Wouldtheynothavebeenasunwillingtopartwiththemaswithgold，andhavecompelledthemtostayathomewiththem？Or，ifthemasterwouldnotstay，thenthediscipleswouldhavefollowedhimabouteverywhere，untiltheyhadgoteducationenough？
　　Yes，Socrates，that，Ithink，isquitetrue。
　　Thenmustwenotinferthatallthesepoeticalindividuals，beginningwithHomer，areonlyimitators；theycopyimagesofvirtueandthelike，butthetruththeyneverreach？Thepoetislikeapainterwho，aswehavealreadyobserved，willmakealikenessofacobblerthoughheunderstandsnothingofcobbling；andhispictureisgoodenoughforthosewhoknownomorethanhedoes，andjudgeonlybycoloursandfigures。
　　Quiteso。
　　Inlikemannerthepoetwithhiswordsandphrasesmaybesaidtolayonthecoloursoftheseveralarts，himselfunderstandingtheirnatureonlyenoughtoimitatethem；andotherpeople，whoareasignorantasheis，andjudgeonlyfromhiswords，imaginethatifhespeaksofcobbling，orofmilitarytactics，orofanythingelse，inmetreandharmonyandrhythm，hespeaksverywell——suchisthesweetinfluencewhichmelodyandrhythmbynaturehave。AndIthinkthatyoumusthaveobservedagainandagainwhatapoorappearancethetalesofpoetsmakewhenstrippedofthecolourswhichmusicputsuponthem，andrecitedinsimpleprose。
　　Yes，hesaid。
　　Theyarelikefaceswhichwereneverreallybeautiful，butonlyblooming；andnowthebloomofyouthhaspassedawayfromthem？
　　Exactly。
　　Hereisanotherpoint：Theimitatorormakeroftheimageknowsnothingoftrueexistence；heknowsappearancesonly。AmInotright？
　　Yes。
　　Thenletushaveaclearunderstanding，andnotbesatisfiedwithhalfanexplanation。
　　Proceed。
　　Ofthepainterwesaythathewillpaintreins，andhewillpaintabit？
　　Yes。
　　Andtheworkerinleatherandbrasswillmakethem？
　　Certainly。
　　Butdoesthepainterknowtherightformofthebitandreins？
　　Nay，hardlyeventheworkersinbrassandleatherwhomakethem；
　　onlythehorsemanwhoknowshowtousethem——heknowstheirrightform。
　　Mosttrue。
　　Andmaywenotsaythesameofallthings？
　　What？
　　Thattherearethreeartswhichareconcernedwithallthings：onewhichuses，anotherwhichmakes，athirdwhichimitatesthem？
　　Yes。
　　Andtheexcellenceorbeautyortruthofeverystructure，animateorinanimate，andofeveryactionofman，isrelativetotheuseforwhichnatureortheartisthasintendedthem。
　　True。
　　Thentheuserofthemmusthavethegreatestexperienceofthem，andhemustindicatetothemakerthegoodorbadqualitieswhichdevelopthemselvesinuse；forexample，theflute—playerwilltelltheflute—makerwhichofhisflutesissatisfactorytotheperformer；hewilltellhimhowheoughttomakethem，andtheotherwillattendtohisinstructions？
　　Ofcourse。
　　Theoneknowsandthereforespeakswithauthorityaboutthegoodnessandbadnessofflutes，whiletheother，confidinginhim，willdowhatheistoldbyhim？
　　True。
　　Theinstrumentisthesame，butabouttheexcellenceorbadnessofitthemakerwillonlyattaintoacorrectbelief；andthishewillgainfromhimwhoknows，bytalkingtohimandbeingcompelledtohearwhathehastosay，whereastheuserwillhaveknowledge？
　　True。
　　Butwilltheimitatorhaveeither？Willheknowfromusewhetherornohisdrawingiscorrectorbeautiful？Orwillhehaverightopinionfrombeingcompelledtoassociatewithanotherwhoknowsandgiveshiminstructionsaboutwhatheshoulddraw？
　　Neither。
　　Thenhewillnomorehavetrueopinionthanhewillhaveknowledgeaboutthegoodnessorbadnessofhisimitations？
　　Isupposenot。
　　Theimitativeartistwillbeinabrilliantstateofintelligenceabouthisowncreations？