Butonewouldhavethought，lookingbackthroughhistory，thattheAlexandrianswerenottheonlyphilosophersguiltyofthisshamefulactofsyncretism。Plato，onewouldhavethought，wasasgreatasinnerasthey。SoweretheHindoos。Inspiteofalltheirlogicalandmetaphysicalacuteness，theywere，youwillfind，unabletogetridofthenotionthattheologicalinquiriesconcerningBrahma，Atma，Creeshna，wereindissolublymixedupwiththatsamelogicandmetaphysic。TheParseescouldnotseparatequestionsaboutAhrimanandOrmuzdfromKant'sthreegreatphilosophicproblems:WhatisMan？——Whatmaybeknown？——Whatshouldbedone？Neither，indeed，couldtheearlierGreeksages。Notoneofthem，ofanyschoolwhatsoever——fromthesemi-mythicSevenSagestoPlatoandAristotle——butfindsitnecessarytoconsidernotinpassing，butasthegreatobjectofresearch，questionsconcerningthegods:-whethertheyarerealornot；oneormany；
　　personalorimpersonal；cosmic，andpartsoftheuniverse，ororganisersandrulersofit；inrelationtoman，orwithoutrelationtohim。Eveninthosewhoflatlydenytheexistenceofthegods，eveninLucretiushimself，thesequestionshavetobeconsidered，beforethequestion，Whatisman？cangetanysolutionatall。Ontheanswergiventothemisfoundtodependintimatelytheanswertothequestion，Whatistheimmaterialpartofman？Isitapartofnature，orofsomethingabovenature？Hasheanimmaterialpartatall？——inoneword，Isahumanmetaphysicpossibleatall？SoitwaswiththeGreekphilosophersofold，even，asAsclepiusandAmmoniussay，withAristotlehimself。"TheobjectofAristotle'smetaphysic，"oneofthemsays，"istheological。
　　HereinAristotletheologises。"Andthereisnodenyingtheassertion。
　　WemustnotthenbehardontheNeoplatonists，asiftheywerethefirsttomixthingsseparatefromthefoundationoftheworld。Idonotsaythattheologyandmetaphysicareseparatestudies。Thatistobeascertainedonlybyseeingsomeoneseparatethem。AndwhenIseethemseparated，Ishallbelievethemseparable。Onlytheseparationmustnotbeproducedbythesimpleexpedientofdenyingtheexistenceofeitheroneofthem，oratleastofignoringtheexistenceofonesteadilyduringthestudyoftheother。Iftheycanbepartedwithoutinjurytoeachother，letthembeparted；andtillthenletussuspendhardjudgmentsontheAlexandrianschoolofmetaphysic，andalsoontheschoolsofthatcuriouspeopletheJews，whohadatthisperiodasteadilyincreasinginfluenceonthethought，aswellasonthecommercialprosperity，of
　　Alexandria。
　　Youmustnotsuppose，inthemeanwhile，thatthephilosopherswhomthePtolemiescollectedastheywouldhaveanyothermarketablearticlebyliberaloffersofpayandpatronage，weresuchmenastheoldSevenSagesofGreece，orasSocrates，Plato，andAristotle。Inthesethreelastindeed，Greekthoughtreachednotmerelyitsgreatestheight，buttheedgeofaprecipice，downwhichitrolledheadlongaftertheirdecease。TheintellectualdefectsoftheGreekmind，ofwhichIhavealreadyspoken，weredoubtlessonegreatcauseofthisdecay:but，tomymind，moralcauseshadstillmoretodowithit。ThemorecultivatedGreekstates，tojudgefromthewritingsofPlato，hadnotbeenanover-
　　righteouspeopleduringthegenerationinwhichhelived。Andinthegenerationswhichfollowed，theybecameanaltogetherwickedpeople；
　　immoral，unbelieving，hatinggood，anddelightinginallwhichwasevil。
　　Anditwasinconsequenceoftheseverysinsoftheirs，asIthink，thattheoldHellenicracebegantodieoutphysically，andpopulationthroughoutGreecetodecreasewithfrightfulrapidity，afterthetimeoftheAchaeanleague。Thefactsarewellknown；andfoulenoughtheyare。
　　WhentheRomansdestroyedGreece，Godwasjustandmerciful。TheeaglesweregatheredtogetheronlybecausethecarrionneededtoberemovedfromthefaceofGod'searth。AndatthetimeofwhichInowspeak，thesignsofapproachingdeathwerefearfullyapparent。HaplessandhopelessenoughwerethecliqueofmenoutofwhomthefirsttwoPtolemieshopedtoformaschoolofphilosophy；mencertainlycleverenough，andamusingwithal，whomightgivethekingsofEgyptmanyashrewdlessoninking-craft，andthewaysofthisworld，andtheartofprofitingbythefollyoffools，andtheselfishnessoftheselfish；orwhomightamusethem，indefaultoffighting-cocks，bypunsandrepartees，andbattlesoflogic；"howonethingcannotbepredicatedofanother，"or"howthewisemanisnotonlytoovercomeeverymisfortune，butnoteventofeelit，"andothersuchmightyquestions，whichinthosedayshidthatdeepunbeliefinanytruthwhatsoeverwhichwasspreadingfastoverthemindsofmen。Suchword-splitterswereStilpoandDiodorus，theslayerandtheslain。Theywereofthe
　　Megaranschool，andwerenamedDialectics；andalso，withmoretruth，Eristics，orquarrellers。TheircliquehadprofessedtofollowZenoandSocratesindeclaringtheinstabilityofsensiblepresumptionsandconclusions，inpreachinganabsoluteandeternalBeing。ButtherewasthisdeepgulfbetweenthemandSocrates；thatwhileSocratesprofessedtobeseekingfortheAbsoluteandEternal，forthatwhichis，theywerecontentwithaffirmingthatitexists。Withhim，aswiththeoldersages，philosophywasasearchfortruth。Withthemitwasaschemeofdoctrinestobedefended。Andthedialecticonwhichtheypridedthemselvessomuch，differedfromhisaccordingly。Heuseditinductively，toseekout，underthenotionsandconceptionsofthemind，certainabsolutetruthsandlawsofwhichtheywereonlytheembodiment。
　　Wordsandthoughtweretohimafieldforcarefulandreverentinduction，asthephenomenaofnaturearetousthedisciplesofBacon。
　　ButwiththesehaplessMegarans，whothoughtthattheyhadfoundthatforwhichSocratesprofessedonlytoseekdimlyandafaroff，andhadgotitsafeinadogma，preservedasitwereinspirits，andputbyinamuseum，thegreatuseofdialecticwastoconfuteopponents。Delightintheirownsubtletygrewonthem，theworshipnotofobjectivetruth，butoftheformsoftheintellectwherebyitmaybedemonstrated；tilltheybecametheveriestword-splitters，rivalsoftheoldsophistswhomtheirmasterhadattacked，andjustifiedtoooftenAristophanes'calumny，whichconfoundedSocrateswithhisopponents，asamanwhoseaimwastomaketheworseappearthebetterreason。
　　Wehavehere，inbothparties，allthemarksofanageofexhaustion，ofscepticism，ofdespairaboutfindinganyrealtruth。NowonderthattheyweresupersededbythePyrrhonists，whodoubtedallthings，andbytheAcademy，whichprideditselfonsettingupeachthingtoknockitdownagain；andsobyprudentandwell-bredandtolerantqualifyingofeveryassertion，neitheraffirmingtoomuch，nordenyingtoomuch，keeptheirmindsinawholesome——orunwholesome——stateofequilibrium，asstagnantpoolsarekept，thateverythingmayhavefreetolerationtorotundisturbed。
　　ThesehaplesscaricaturistsofthedialecticofPlato，andthelogicofAristotle，carelessofanyvitalprinciplesorrealresults，readyenoughtousefallacieseachfortheirownparty，andopenlyproudoftheirsuccessindoingso，wereassistedbyworthycompeersofanoutwardlyoppositetoneofthought，theCyrenaics，TheodorusandHegesias。Withtheirclique，aswiththeirmasterAristippus，thesensesweretheonlyavenuestoknowledge；manwasthemeasureofallthings；and"happinessourbeing'sendandaim。"TheodoruswassurnamedtheAtheist；and，itseems，notwithoutgoodreason；forhetaughtthattherewasnoabsoluteoreternaldifferencebetweengoodandevil；
　　nothingreallydisgracefulincrimes；nodivinegroundforlaws，whichaccordingtohimhadbeeninventedbymentopreventfoolsfrommakingthemselvesdisagreeable；onwhichtheory，lawsmustbeconfessedtohavebeeninallagessomewhatofafailure。Heseemstohavebeen，likehismaster，animpudentlight-heartedfellow，whotooklifeeasilyenough，laughedatpatriotism，andallotherhigh-flownnotions，boastedthattheworldwashiscountry，andwasnodoubtexcellentafter-dinnercompanyforthegreatking。Hegesias，hisfellowCyrenaic，wasamanofadarkerandmoremelancholictemperament；andwhileTheodoruscontentedhimselfwithpreachingacomfortableselfishness，andobtainingpleasure，madeitratherhisstudytoavoidpain。DoubtlessboththeirtheorieswerepopularenoughatAlexandria，astheywereinFranceduringtheanalogousperiod，theSiecleLouisQuinze。The"ContratSocial，"andtherestoftheirdoctrines，moralandmetaphysical，willalwayshavetheiradmirersonearth，aslongasthatvarietyofthehumanspeciesexistsforwhoseespecialbehoofTheodorusheldthatlawsweremade；andthewholeformofthoughtmetwithgreatapprobationinafteryearsatRome，whereEpicuruscarriedittoitshighestperfection。Afterthat，underthepressureofatrainofratherseverelessons，whichGibbonhasdetailedinhis"DeclineandFalloftheRomanEmpire，"littleornothingwasheardofit，savesottovoce，perhaps，atthePapalcourtsofthesixteenthcentury。Toreviveitpublicly，oratleastasmuchofitascouldbebornebyaworld
　　nowforseventeencenturiesChristian，wasthegloryoftheeighteenthcentury。ThemoralschemeofTheodorushasnownearlyvanishedamongus，atleastasaconfessedcreed；and，inspiteoftheauthorityofMr。Locke'sgreatandgoodname，hismetaphysicalschemeisshowingsignsofalikeapproachingdisappearance。Letushopethatitmaybeaspeedyone；forifthesensesbetheonlyavenuestoknowledge；ifmanbethemeasureofallthings；andiflawhavenot，asHookersays，herfountandhomeintheverybosomofGodhimself，thenwasHomer'sZeusrightindeclaringmantobe"themostwretchedofallthebeastsofthefield。"
　　AndyetonecannothelplookingwithasortofaweIdarenotcallitrespectatthatmelancholicfaithlessHegesias。Doubtlesshe，likehiscompeers，andindeedallAlexandriaforthreehundredyears，cultivatedphilosophywithnomorerealpurposethanitwascultivatedbythegracelessbeaux-espritsofLouisXV。'scourt，andwithaslittlepracticaleffectonmorality；butofthisHegesiasaloneitstandswritten，thathisteachingactuallymademendosomething；andmoreover，dothemostsolemnandimportantthingwhichanymancando，exceptingalwaysdoingright。Imustconfess，however，thattheresultofhisteachingtooksounexpectedaform，thatthereigningPtolemy，apparentlyPhiladelphus，hadtointerferewiththesacredrightofeverymantotalkasmuchnonsenseashelikes，andforbadeHegesiastoteachatAlexandria。ForHegesias，aCyrenaiclikeTheodorus，butarathermoremorosepedantthanthatsaucyandhappyscoffer，havingdiscovered
　　thatthegreatendofmanwastoavoidpain，alsodiscoveredhisdigestionbeingprobablyinadisorderedstatethattherewassomuchmorepainthanpleasureintheworld，astomakeitathoroughlydisagreeableplace，ofwhichmanwaswellridatanyprice。Whereonhewroteabookcalled，[Greektext:apokarteroon]，inwhichamanwhohaddeterminedtostarvehimself，preachedthemiseriesofhumanlife，andtheblessingsofdeath，withsuchoverpoweringforce，thatthebookactuallydrovemanypersonstocommitsuicide，andescapefromaworldwhichwasnotfittodwellin。Afearfulproofofhowrottenthestateofsocietywasbecoming，howdesperatethemindsofmen，duringthosefrightfulcenturieswhichimmediatelyprecededtheChristianera，andhowfastwasapproachingthatdarkchaosofunbeliefandunrighteousness，whichPaulofTarsussoanalysesanddescribesinthefirstchapterofhisEpistletotheRomans——whentheoldlightwaslost，theoldfaithsextinct，theoldreverenceforthelawsoffamilyandnationallife，destroyed，yeaeventhenaturalinstinctsthemselvesperverted；thatchaoswhosedarknessJuvenal，andPetronius，andTacitushaveproved，intheirfearfulpages，nottohavebeenexaggeratedbythemorecompassionatethoughmorerighteousJew。
　　Andnowobserve，thatthisselfishness——thiswholesomestateofequilibrium——thisphilosophiccalm，whichisreallyonlyalazypride，was，asfaraswecantell，themainobjectofalltheschoolsfromthetimeofAlexandertotheChristianera。WeknowverylittleofthoseSceptics，Cynics，Epicureans，Academics，Peripatetics，Stoics，ofwhomtherehasbeensomuchtalk，exceptatsecond-hand，throughtheRomans，fromwhomStoicisminafteragesreceivedanewandnotignoblelife。
　　Butthiswedoknowofthelatersets，thattheygraduallygaveupthesearchfortruth，andpropoundedtothemselvesasthegreattypeforaphilosopher，Howshallamansavehisownsoulfromthisevilworld？
　　Theymayhavebeenright；itmayhavebeenthebestthingtothinkaboutinthoseexhaustedanddecayingtimes:butitwasaquestionofethics，notofphilosophy，inthesensewhichtheoldGreeksagesputonthatlatterword。Theirobjectwas，nottogetatthelawsofallthings，buttofortifythemselvesagainstallthings，eachaccordingtohisscheme，andsotobeself-sufficientandalone。EvenintheStoics，whoboldlyandrighteouslyassertedanimmutablemorality，thiswastheleadingconception。Ashasbeenwellsaidofthem:
　　"IfwereflecthowdeeplythefeelingofanintercoursebetweenmenandadivineracesuperiortothemselveshadworkeditselfintotheGreekcharacter——whatanumberoffables，somebeautiful，someimpure，ithadimpregnatedandprocuredcredencefor——howitsustainedeveryformofpolityandeverysystemoflaws，wemayimaginewhattheeffectsmusthavebeenofitsdisappearance。Ifitispossibleforanyman，itwasnot，certainly，possibleforaGreek，tofeelhimselfconnectedbyanyrealbondswithhisfellow-creaturesaroundhim，whilehefelthimselfutterlyseparatedfromanybeingabovehisfellow-creatures。Butthesenseofthatisolationwouldaffectdifferentmindsverydifferently。
　　ItdrovetheEpicureantoconsiderhowhemightmakeaworldinwhichheshouldlivecomfortably，withoutdistractingvisionsofthepastandfuture，andthedreadofthoseupperpowerswhonolongerawakenedinhimanyfeelingsofsympathy。ItdroveZenotheStoictoconsiderwhetheramanmaynotfindenoughinhimselftosatisfyhim，thoughwhatisbeyondhimbeeversounfriendly……WemaytraceintheproductionswhichareattributedtoZoneaveryclearindicationofthefeelingwhichwasatworkinhismind。Heundertook，forinstance，amongothertasks，toanswerPlato's'Republic。'Thetruththatamanisapoliticalbeing，whichinformsandpervadesthatbook，wasonewhichmusthavebeenparticularlyharassingtohismind，andwhichhefeltmustbegotridof，beforehecouldhopetoasserthisdoctrineofaman'ssolitarydignity。"
　　Woetothenationorthesocietyinwhichthisindividualisingandseparatingprocessisgoingoninthehumanmind!Whetherittaketheformofareligionorofaphilosophy，itisatoncethesignandthecauseofsenility，decay，anddeath。Ifmanbeginstoforgetthatheisasocialbeing，amemberofabody，andthattheonlytruthswhichcanavailhimanything，theonlytruthswhichareworthyobjectsofhisphilosophicalsearch，arethosewhichareequallytrueforeveryman，whichwillequallyavaileveryman，whichhemustproclaim，asfarashecan，toeveryman，fromtheproudestsagetothemeanestoutcast，heenters，Ibelieve，intoalie，andhelpsforwardthedissolutionofthatsocietyofwhichheisamember。Icarelittlewhetherwhatheholdsbetrueornot。Ifitbetrue，hehasmadeitaliebyappropriatingitproudl
　　andselfishlytohimself，andbyexcludingothersfromit。Hehasdarkenedhisownpowerofvisionbythatactofself-appropriation，sothatevenifheseesatruth，hecanonlyseeitrefractedly，discolouredbythemediumofhisownprivatelikesanddislikes，andfulfilsthatgreatandtrulyphilosophiclaw，thathewholovethnothisbrotherisindarkness，andknowethnotwhitherhegoeth。AndsoitbefellthoseoldGreekschools。ItisoutofourpathtofollowthemtoItaly，wheresturdyoldRomanpatriotscursedthem，andwithgoodreason，ascorruptingthemoralsoftheyoung。OurbusinessiswithAlexandria；andthere，certainly，theydidnothingfortheelevationofhumanity。Whatculturetheymayhavegiven，probablyhelpedtomaketheAlexandrians，whatCaesarcallsthem，themostingeniousofallnations:
　　butrighteousorvaliantmenitdidnotmakethem。When，afterthethreegreatreignsofSoter，Philadelphus，andEuergetes，theraceofthePtolemiesbegantowearitselfout，Alexandriafellmorally，asitssovereignsfell；andduringamiserableandshamefuldeclineofahundredandeightyyears，sophistswrangled，pedantsfoughtoveraccentsandreadingswiththetrueodiumgammaticum，andkingsplungeddeeperanddeeperintotheabyssesofluxuryandincest，lazinessandcruelty，tillthefloodcame，andsweptthemallaway。Cleopatra，theHelenofEgypt，betrayedhercountrytotheRoman；andthenceforththeAlexandriansbecameslavesinallbutname。
　　AndnowthatAlexandriahasbecomeatributaryprovince，isittosharetheusuallotofenslavedcountriesandlosealloriginalityandvigourofthought？Notso。Fromthispoint，strangelyenough，itbeginstohaveaphilosophyofitsown。HithertoithasbeenimportingGreekthoughtintoEgyptandSyria，eventothefurthestboundariesofPersia；
　　andthewholeEasthasbecomeGreek:butithasreceivedlittleinreturn。TheIndianGymnosophists，orBrahmins，hadlittleornoeffectonGreekphilosophy，exceptinthecaseofPyrrho:thePersianDualismstillless。TheEgyptiansymbolicnature-worshiphadbeentoogrosstoberegardedbythecultivatedAlexandrianasanythingbutabarbaricsuperstition。OneeasternnationhadintermingledcloselywiththeMacedonianrace，andfromitAlexandrianthoughtreceivedanewimpulse。
　　ImentionedinmyfirstlecturetheconciliatorypolicywhichthePtolemieshadpursuedtowardtheJews。SoterhadnotonlyallowedbutencouragedthemtosettleinAlexandriaandEgypt，grantingthemthesamepoliticalprivilegeswiththeMacedoniansandotherGreeks。Soontheybuiltthemselvesatemplethere，inobediencetosomesupposed
　　prophecyintheirsacredwritings，whichseemsmostprobablytohavebeenawilfulinterpolation。WhatsoevervaluewemayattachtothevariousmythsconcerningthetranslationoftheirScripturesintoGreek，therecanbenodoubtthattheyweretranslatedinthereignofSoter，andthattheexceedinglyvaluableSeptuagintversionistheworkofthatperiod。Moreover，theirnumbersinAlexandriawereverygreat。WhenAmroutookConstantinopleinA。D。640，therewere40，000Jewsinit；andtheirnumbersduringthePtolemaicandRomanperiods，beforetheirtemporaryexpulsionbyCyrilabout412，wereprobablygreater；andEgyptaltogetherissaidtohavecontained200，000Jews。Theyhadschoolsthere，whichweresoesteemedbytheirwholenationthroughouttheEast，thattheAlexandrianRabbis，theLightofIsrael，astheywerecalled，maybefairlyconsideredasthecentreofJewishthoughtandlearningforseveralcenturies。
　　Weareaccustomed，andnotwithoutreason，tothinkwithsomecontemptoftheseoldRabbis。Rabbinism，Cabbalism，arebecomeby-wordsinthemouthsofmen。Itmaybeinstructiveforus——itiscertainlynecessaryforus，ifwewishtounderstandAlexandria——toexaminealittlehowtheybecamesofallen。
　　Theirphilosophytookitsstand，asyouallknow，oncertainancientbooksoftheirpeople；histories，laws，poems，philosophicaltreatises，whichallhaveoneelementpeculiartothemselves，namely，theassertionofalivingpersonalRulerandTeacher，notmerelyoftheJewishrace，butofallthenationsoftheearth。AfterthereturnoftheirracefromBabylon，theirownrecordsgiveabundantevidencethatthisstrangepeoplebecamethemostexclusiveandsectarianwhichtheworldeversaw。
　　IntothecausesofthatexclusivenessIwillnotnowenter；sufficeittosay，thatitwaspardonableenoughinapeopleassertingMonotheisminthemidstofidolatrousnations，andwhoknew，fromexperienceevenmorebitterthanthatwhichtaughtPlatoandSocrates，howdirectlyallthosepopularidolatriesledtoeveryformofbasenessandimmorality。
　　Butwemaytraceinthem，fromthedateoftheirreturnfromBabylon，especiallyfromtheirsettlementinAlexandria，asingularchangeofopinion。InproportionastheybegantodenythattheirunseenpersonalRulerhadanythingtodowiththeGentiles——thenationsoftheearth，astheycalledthem——inproportionastheyconsideredthemselvesasHisonlysubjects——orrather，HimandHisguidanceastheirownprivateproperty——exactlyinthatproportiontheybegantolosealllivingorpracticalbeliefthatHedidguidethem。Hebecameabeingofthepast；
　　onewhohadtaughtandgovernedtheirforefathersinoldtimes:notonewhowasteachingandgoverningthemnow。Ibegyoutopayattentiontothiscuriousresult；becauseyouwillsee，Ithink，theverysamethingoccurringintwootherAlexandrianschools，ofwhichIshallspeakhereafter。
　　TheresulttotheseRabbiswas，thattheinspiredbookswhichspokeofthisDivineguidanceandgovernmentbecameobjectsofsuperstitiousreverence，justinproportionastheylostallunderstandingoftheirrealvalueandmeaning。Nevertheless，thistooproducedgoodresults；
　　forthegreatestpossiblecarewastakentofixtheCanonofthesebooks；tosettle，asfaraspossible，theexacttimeatwhichtheDivineguidancewassupposedtohaveceased；afterwhichitwasimpioustoclaimaDivineteaching；whentheirsageswerelefttothemselves，astheyfancied，withacompletebodyofknowledge，onwhichtheywerehenceforthonlytocomment。Thus，whetherornottheywererightinsupposingthattheDivineTeacherhadceasedtoteachandinspirethem，theydidinfiniteservicebymarkingoutforuscertainwriterswhomHehadcertainlytaughtandinspired。
　　Nodoubttheywererightintheirsenseoftheawfulchangewhichhadpassedovertheirnation。TherewasaninfinitedifferencebetweenthemandtheoldHebrewwriters。Theyhadlostsomethingwhichthoseoldprophetspossessed。Iinviteyoutoponder，eachforhimself，onthecausesofthisstrangeloss；bearinginmindthattheylosttheirforefathers'heirloom，exactlyinproportionastheybegantobelieveittobetheirexclusivepossession，andtodenyotherhumanbeingsanyrighttoorshareinit。Itmayhavebeenthatthelightgiventotheirforefathershad，astheythought，reallydeparted。Itmayhavebeen，also，thatthelightwasthereallaroundthemstill，asbrightasever，butthattheywouldnotopentheireyesandbeholdit；orrather，couldnotopenthem，becauseselfishnessandpridehadsealedthem。Itmayhavebeen，thatinspirationwasstillverynearthemtoo，iftheirspiritshadbeenwillingtoreceiveit。