veryaccuratelycorresponded。Thosesubordinaterightsofthepeopletotemporarypossessionwhichhavegrownupin
　　peacefultimes，haveeverremainedprecariousandimperfect:buttherightoftheruleristherightofthestrongest；and
　　wheneitherintestinewarsorforeigninvasionhavebroughtanewmastertoadistrict，hisswordhasrestoredthesovereign'sclaiminallitsprimitiveclearness。Theproportionoftheproducetakenbythesovereign，hasonsomegroundorotherperpetuallyvaried；thatis，whenhehas
　　pretendedtoconfinehimselftoanydefiniteproportionatall。Thelawsseemtofixitatone-sixth，butinpractice，thislawor
　　rulehasbeenutterlydisregarded。Strabomentions，thatinhistime，，？
　　，wherebystrainingtheGreekalittleeitherway，therentmayappeartohavebeen
　　one-fourthorthree-fourthsoftheproduce。TheMogulconquerorsexactedtheirrentsinproportions，whichvaried
　　considerablywiththequalityoftheland，moreparticularlywithitscommandofwater。Butnodefiniterateofrenthaseverprevailedlonginpractice。UndertheHindoogovernments，therehadbeenadispositiontoallowmanysubordinateclaimstothepossessionofthesoil，
　　andtoofficesconnectedwiththecollectionoftherevenue，tobecomehereditary。Oftheoffices，themostimportantwas
　　thatoftheZemindars。Thesewereentrustedwiththecollectionoftherevenueindistrictsofdifferentsizes，wereentitledto
　　atenthofitsamount，hadsometimeslandsassignedtothem，andwereendowedwithveryconsiderableauthority。They
　　weremuchinthehabitofmakingadvancesofseedandstocktoassistthecultivator，andofstipulatingforrepaymentinthe
　　shapeofproduce。Whenthesonhadbeenallowedtosucceedthefatherforsomegenerationsinsuchanoffice，thetiesand
　　interestswhichconnectedhimwiththepeopleunderhimweresomanyandstrong，thatthedisplacingaZemindar，unless
　　forgrossmisconductorforfailureinpaymentofthesovereign'srent，wasthoughtbyhimselfandtheryots，tobeanactof
　　tyrannicaloppression。Theryotsverygenerallyoccupiedtheirlandsincommon，andwerecollectedintovillagesunder
　　officersoftheirown，whodistributedtothecultivatorsandtradesmentheirrespectivesharesoftheproduce。Thevillage
　　officesandvarioustradesbecamehereditary。Theryottoohimself，theactualcultivator，wasyetlesslikelythanthesuperior
　　officerstobedisturbedinthepossessionofhislands。Providedthesovereign'sshareoftheproducewaspaid，hehadno
　　interestindisturbingthehumbleagentsofproduction，andaverygreatinterestinretainingthem。Fromsimilarreasons，aclaimtomortgageorsellhispossessoryinterest，wassufferedtoestablishitself。Butthenallthesesubordinateinterestswereonlyrespectedinpeacefultimes，andundermoderategovernors；andthese
　　wererareinIndia。Ithasbeenhithertothemisfortuneofthatcountry，toseearapidsuccessionofshortlivedempires:the
　　convulsionsamidstwhichtheywereestablished，havehardlysubsided，beforethepeoplehavebeguntobeharassedbythe
　　consequencesoftheirweaknessanddecay。Whileanyreallyefficientgeneralgovernmenthasexisted，ithasbeentheobvious
　　interest，andusuallytheaimofthechiefstoactuponsomedefinitesystem；toputsome
　　limittotheirownexactions；to
　　protecttheryots，andfostercultivationbygivingreasonablesecuritytoalltheinterestsconcernedinit。TheMogul
　　emperorsactedinthisspirit，whileexercisingapoweroverthesoil，whichhadnorealbounds，butthosewhichthey
　　prescribedtothemselves。Butastheempiregrewfeeble，andthesubordinatechieftains，Mahometan，orHindoo，beganto
　　exerciseanuncontrolledpowerintheirdistricts，theirrapacityandviolenceseemusuallytohavebeenwhollyuncheckedby
　　policyorprinciple。Therewasatonceanendtoallsystem，moderation，orprotection；ruinousrents，arbitrarilyimposed，
　　werecollectedinfrequentmilitarycircuits，atthespear'spoint；andtheresistanceoftenattemptedindespair，wasunsparinglypunishedbyfireandslaughter。Sceneslikethese，intheancienthistoryofIndia，havebeenfrequentlyrenewed，andsucceededrapidlyshortintervalsof
　　repose。Theywereofcoursedisastrous。Halftherichterritoryofthatcountryhasneverbeencultivated，thoughswarming
　　withapopulationtowhomthepermissiontomakeitfruitfulinmoderatesecurity，wouldhavebeenhappiness；andnothingcanwellexceedtheordinarypovertyoftheryots，andtheinefficiencyoftheirmeansofcultivation。TheEnglish，whentheybecametherepresentativesoftheMogulemperorinBengal，beganbypushingtoanextremetheir
　　rightsasproprietorsofthesoil；andneglectedthesubordinateclaimsoftheZemindarsandryots，inamannerwhichwasfelt
　　tobeoppressiveandtyrannical，althoughnotperhapsinstrictnessillegal。Agreatreactionhastakenplaceintheirviewsand
　　feelings；perceivingthenecessityofrestoringconfidencetothecultivators，andanxioustoshakeofftheimputationof
　　injusticeandtyranny，theyshowedthemselvesquitewillingtopartwiththeircharacterofownersofthesoil，andtoretain
　　simplythatofitssovereign。Anagreementwasinconsequenceenteredinto，bywhichtheZemindarsassumedacharacter，
　　whichcertainlyneverbeforebelongedtothem，thatofthedirectlandlordsofthoseryots，betweenwhomandthesupreme
　　governmenttheyhadbeforebeenonlyagents；agents，however，possessedofmanyimperfectbutprescriptiverightstoan
　　hereditaryinterestintheiroffice。Thegovernment，insteadofexactingrents，wascontenttoreceiveafixedandpermanenttax；forwhichthenewlandlordsweretoberesponsible。Therecanbenodoubtofthefairandevenbenevolentspirit，inwhichthisarrangementwasmade。Itseemshowevertobe
　　nowgenerallyadmitted，thattheclaimsoftheZemindarswereoverrated，andthatifsomethinglesshadbeendoneforthem，
　　andsomethingmoreforthesecurityandindependenceoftheryots，thesettlement，withoutbeinglessjustorgenerous，
　　wouldhavebeenmuchmoreexpedient。
　　SECTIONIII。
　　OnRyotRentsinPersia。Ofallthedespoticgovernmentsoftheeast，thatofPersiaisperhapsthemostgreedy，andthemostwantonlyunprincipled；
　　yetthepeculiarsoilofthatcountryhasintroducedsomevaluablemodificationsofthegeneralAsiaticsystemofryotrents，
　　andforcedthegovernment，unscrupulousasitis，totreatthevariousinterestsinthelandsubordinatetothoseofthecrown，withconsiderableforbearance。Oneofthemostremarkablegeologicalfeaturesoftheoldworld，isthatgreattractofsandydesert，whichextendsacrossits
　　wholebreadth，andimposesapeculiarcharacteronthetribeswhichroamoveritssurface，orinhabititsborders。Itformsthe
　　shoresoftheAtlanticonthewesterncoastofAfrica，andconstitutestheZaharaorgreatsandydesert，whichhas
　　contributedtoconcealsolongthecentralregionsofthatquarteroftheglobefromEuropeancuriosity。Itformsnextthe
　　surfaceofEgyptwiththeexceptionofthevalleyoftheNile；stretchesacrosstheArabianwastes，toSyria，Persia，andupper
　　India；andturningfromPersianorthwards，threadsbetweenMushedandHerat4theElburz
　　andParapomisanmountains，
　　partsoftheCaucasianorHimalayanchain；runsnorth-eastwardthroughTartary，androundingthenorthernextremityof
　　China，sinksfinally，itissupposed，beneaththewavesofthePacific。ThegreaterpartoftheterritoriesofPersiaeither
　　consistofthisdesert，orborderonit；andpartakesomuchofitsparchedandsterilecharacter，thattheeyeatashort
　　distancecanhardlytracetheboundary。5Thissoilcanbemadefruitfulonlybyirrigation。Butwater，saysFrazer，isthemost
　　scantyboonofnatureinPersia；itsriversaresmallandfew，andrivulets，bynomeanscommon，canonlybeappliedtoa
　　verylimitedquantityofcultivation。Inthebestdistricts，thesmallproportionofcultivatedlandresemblesanOasisinthedesert，servingbycontrasttomakeallarounditmoredreary。6Asthenaturalspringsandstreamsareinsufficienttosupportthecultivationbywhichthepeoplemustexist，thePersians
　　establishwithgreatlaborandexpenseartificialsources，calledcannauts。Theysinkonthesidesofhillslongchainsofwells，
　　ofdifferentdepths，andcommunicatingbyachannel，whichconductstothelowestthewatercollectedinthem:thencethe
　　streamisdistributedoverthefieldswhichitistofertilize。Theseworks，alwayscostlyandimportant，areofvarioussizes；
　　thechainofwellsissaidtobeoccasionallythirty-sixmilesinlength，andacannautisspokenofinChorassan，intowhichahorsemanmayridewithhislanceuponhisshoulder；7moreordinarily，thechannelsaresmall，andthechainofwellsdoesnotexceedtwomilesinlength。Whenever，bytheseorothermeans，waterisbroughttothesurface，scenesoforiental
　　vegetationspringuprapidlyandluxuriantly。Iffromwar，oroppression，oraccident，ortime，theworksofmanare
　　destroyedorneglected，thesceneoffertilityvanishes，andthedesertresumesitsdomain。
　　TheplainofYezid-Khaustinthe
　　routefromShiraztoTeheran，wasoncecelebratedforitsbeautyandfertility:Mr。Frazerpassedoveritin1821，andthus
　　describesit。"TheplainofYezid-Khaust，whichextendsinthelineofourrouteallthewaytoKomaishah，presented，
　　towardsthelatterplace，atrulylamentablepictureofthegeneraldeclineofprosperityinPersia。Ruinsoflargevillages
　　thicklyscatteredabout，withtheskeleton-likewallsofcaravanseraisandgardens，alltellingofbettertimes，stoodlike
　　mementomoristokingdomsandgovernments；andthewholeplainwasdottedoverwithsmallmounds，whichindicatethe
　　courseofcannauts，oncethesourceofrichesandfertility，nowallchokedupanddry，forthereisneithermannbrcultivation
　　torequiretheiraid。"8ThedistrictofNishaporewasanothercelebratedseatofPersiancultivation。"Itwasadded，"saysMr。
　　Frazer，speakingoftheinformationhereceivedconcerningthisplace；"thatinthedifferentdepartmentsofNishaporethey
　　reckon14000distinctvillages，allinhabited，andirrigatedby12000cannautsand18smallriversfromthemountains。This
　　magnificentdetailisnodoubtgreatlyexaggerated，beingbutareiterationofthetraditionalaccountofthisplaceinitsdays
　　ofhighprosperity:nosuchvastpopulationorcultivationnowexists；mostofthevillagesareruinous；thecannauts，the
　　remainsofwhich，coveringtheplain，mayservealmosttoattestthetruthoftheabovestatement，arenowchokedupanddry。"9NowtheprincipalrevenueofthemonarchsofPersiaisderivedfromtheproduceoftheearth，ofwhichtheyarethesupreme
　　owners。Itcouldnotescapeeventheireyes，blinded。astheyarebygreedinessandhabitsofrapine，thatthecostofthus
　　wrestingcultivatedspotsfromthedesert，andmaintainingtheminfruitfulness，wouldneverbeincurred，unlessthe
　　undertakersfeltreallysecurethattheirpropertyinthemwouldbesubsequentlyrespected。BythelawsofPersia，therefore，
　　hewhobringswatertothesurface，whereitneverwasbefore，isguaranteedbythesovereigninthehereditarypossessionof
　　thelandfertilizedbyhim，andwhileareservedrentofone-fifthoftheproduceispaidtotheShah，thepossessordisposesof
　　itashepleases，andiseffectuallyitsproprietor，subjecttoarentcharge。Ifhechoosestoletoutthewater，atmoneyrents，
　　tootherpersonswhohavelands，whichalreadypaytheroyalrentinproduce，thentherentofthewaterishisown:the
　　crownprofitsonlybyadditionalfertilitythusbestoweduponspots，intheproduceofwhichitshares。AmongthePersiansof
　　property，mostusuallythoseinoffice，makingcannautsisafavoritespeculation；thevillagers，too，oftenjoinandconstructthem，andthesearethebestproofsthatthisguaranteeofthesovereignisfaithfullyobserved。Makingproperallowances，however，forthemoresteadyrespectforsubordinateinterests，whichtheoutlayforartificial
　　irrigationmakesnecessaryonthepartofthePersiansovereigns，theirmanagementoftheterritorytheyownisverysimilar
　　towhatwehaveseenprevailsinIndia。Theryotsinhabitingvillagescultivatethesoilincommon，orinallotments
　　determinedamongthemselves；theirinterestinthelandishereditary。"Theoriginalcustomarylawconcerningproperty，"
　　saysMr。Frazer，"clearlyprovidedwithmuchconsiderationforthesecurityoftheryot。Therightsofthevillagerwere
　　guardedatleastascarefullyastheseofhislord:histitletocultivatehisportionoflanddescendstohimfromtheoriginal
　　commencementofthevillagetowhichhebelongs，andcanneitherbedisputedorrefusedhim，norcanheforfeitit，norcanthelordofthevillageejectanyryotwhileheconductshimselfwellandpayshisportionoftherent。"10Therentatpresentexactedfromtheryotisone-fifthpertoftheproduce；ithasvariedandbeendifferentlyamusedatthe
　　discretionofdifferentPrinces，moreparticularlyNushirvanandThour。ThePersian。nowstatethatbyancientcustomonly
　　one-tenthwasdue:thattheothertenthwasagreedtobepaidonapromisethatthesaadurautorirregulartaxesshouldcease；butthatthoughtheadditionaltenthhasbeenexacted，thetaxesremainatleastasoppressiveasbefore。11Abovethesehereditarycultivatorsisasubordinateproprietor，oftencalledbyFraserthelordofthevillage，whoisentitled
　　toone-tenthofthecrop。InthismantheIndianZemindarisimmediatelyrecognised:butthoughthewordZemindarwas
　　originallyPersian，itdoesnotappeartobeinfamiliaruseinPersiaatpresent。Therightofhereditarysuccessiontothis
　　intermediateinterestcannothavebeenfullyrecognisedforanyverylongperiod。Chardinstatesthatinhistimethepractice
　　oftakingleasesfor99yearsfromthecrownwasonlybeginningtoestablishitself。Bernierdistinctlydeniesthatsuchathing
　　asprivatepropertyinlandwasknowninPersia。Theinterestsofthisclassofmenhavenaturallygatheredstrengthand
　　permanenceinPersia。evenmorerapidlythaninIndia，fromthenecessityofadvancesforthepurposesofirrigation，which
　　wereusuallymadebythem。Theirrighttothetenthoftheproduceseemstobenowsocompletelyseveredfromtheduties
　　ofcollection，thatthejealousyofthePersianmonarchsforbidsthemsometimeseventoresideintheirvillages，toprevent，it
　　issaid，theirtyrannizingovertheryots，12moreprobablytogetridoftheirinterferenceinresistingtheexactionsofthegovernmentofficers，whichitisfoundtheycandomoreeffectuallythantheryotsthemselves。13TherearepersonsinPersiawhoboast，perhapswithtruth，thattheseestates，astheycallthem，havebeeninthehandsof
　　theirfamilyforalongsuccessionofyears。DidthereexistarealbodyoflandedproprietorsinPersia，assecureinthe
　　possessionoftheirheritageasthesemenareintheirlimitedinterests，thedespotismoftheShahwouldatoncebeshackled。
　　Butmenentitledtocollectone-tenthoftheproducefromtenantshereditarylikethemselves，whilethegreatsovereign
　　proprietoriscollectingafifthatthesametime，arelittlelikelytoacquireaninfluenceinthecountry，sufficienttoprotect
　　eitherthesubordinateryotsorthemselves；andaccordinglythechiefweightofwhatisprobablyoneoftheworst
　　governmentsintheworld，restsuponthenecksofthecultivators。"ThereisnoclassofmensaysFraserwhosesituation
　　presentsamoremelancholypictureofoppressionandtyrannythanthefarmersandcultivatorsofthegroundinPersia。They
　　livecontinuallyunderasystemofextortionandinjustice，fromwhichtheyhavenomeansofescape，andwhichisthemore
　　distressing，becauseitisindefinitebothinformandextent，fornomancantellwhen，
　　how，ortowhatamountdemandsupon
　　himmaywithoutwarningbemade。Itisuponthefarmersandpeasantrythatthewholeextortionpractisedinthecountry
　　finallyalights。Thekingwringsfromhisministersandgovernors；theymustprocurethesumsrequiredfromtheheadsof
　　districts，whointheirturndemanditfromthezabutsorketkhodahsofvillages，andthesemustatlastsqueezeitfromthe
　　ryots；eachoftheseintermediateagentsmustalsohavetheirprofits，sothatthesumreceivedbythekingbearssmall
　　proportiontothatwhichispaidbytheryots。Everytax，everypresent，everyfine，fromwhomsoeverreceivedordemanded
　　inthefirstinstance，ultimatelyfallsonthem，andsuchisthecharacteroftheirrulers，thattheonlymeasureofthesedemands
　　isthepowertoextortontheonehand，andtheabilitytogiveorretainontheother。"14
　　SECTIONIV。
　　OnRyotRentsinTurkey。WhentheTurks，aftersubduingtheprovincesoftheGreekEmpire，finallyquarteredthemselvesuponitsruins，the
　　foundationoftheirsystemofrevenueandgovernment，likethatofotherTartartribes，resteduponanassumptionthattheirleaderhadbecomethelegitimateproprietoroftheconqueredsoil。Therentimposeduponthecultivatorsappearstohavebeenoriginallycalculatedatone-tenthofthegrossproduce；andthe
　　estimatedvalueofeachdistrict，atthatrate，wasataveryearlydateregisteredinthetreasury。Theregistersarestillused，in
　　accountingwiththePachasofthedifferentprovinces。Butastherentpaidbyeachdistrictnevervaries，whateverchanges
　　takeplaceinitscultivation，thedecayofagricultureandpopulationhasloadedmanyofthepeasantswithmuchheavier
　　burthensthantheyatfirstbore。One-seventhoftheproducewherethecultivatorisaTurk，onefifthwhereheisaChristian，
　　haveappearedtolatertravellersinGreecetobeabouttheaverageactualpaymenttothecrown。
　　TheviolencewithwhichtheTurksexemplifiedinpracticetheirAsiaticnotionsofthesupremerightoftheirleadertothesoil，willbebestjudgedofbytheirnextmeasure。TheSultangrantedaconsiderableportionofhisproprietaryrightstoothers，forthepurposeofformingasortoffeudal
　　militia。Theofficersofrankreceivedallotmentsoflandcalledziametsandtimars，inwhichtheirrightsrepresentthoseofthe
　　sovereign，andthenumbercreatedoftheseexceeded50，000。Theziametdifferedfromthetimarsonlyinbeinglarger。For
　　thesegrantstheywereboundtoperformmilitaryservices，withaspecifiednumberofmen。Theirforcesconstituted，tillthe
　　riseoftheJanissaries，themainforceoftheEmpire，andamounteditissaidto150，000men。Similargrantsareknownin
　　IndiabythenameofIaghires，inPersiabythatofTeecools，buttheywereestablishedlesssystematicallyinthosecountries
　　thaninTurkey。Theretheselandshaveneverbecomehereditary。Theyarestillstrictlylifehold。Intheearlydaysoftheir
　　institution，usewasmadeofthemtoexcitemilitaryemulation。Onthedeathofthepossessor，oneofthebravestofhis
　　comradeswasimmediatelyappointedtohisestate，andonetimarhasbeenknowntobethusgrantedeighttimesinasingle
　　campaign。15Thedisposalofthem，however，haslongbecomewhollyvenal。AnAganotunfrequentlypurchasesduringhis
　　lifethegrantofthereversiontohisfamily；butifheneglectstodothis，hisrelativesaredispossessedathisdeath，unless
　　theyoutbidallotherapplicants。16Withtheexceptionoftheseinterestsforlife，andoftheestatesvestedintheUlemaor
　　expoundersofMohammedanlaw，therearenodistinctlyrecognizedproprietaryrightsinTurkey。Althoughthere，asamong
　　theryotsofIndiaandPersia，andelsewherethroughouttheeast，thereexistclaimstothehereditarypossessionofland。
　　WhilethepeasantpaystotheSultan，ortotheAgatowhoseZaimorTimarhebelongs，thelegalportionofhisproduce，his
　　righttooccupyandtransmithislandsisnotcontested，andissecure，asfarasanythingissecurethere。InGreecethelands
　　were，beforethepresentconvulsion，verygenerallycultivatedbytheancientmortitaeormetayertenants，whopaidtothe
　　Agashalfoftheirproduce。WhetherthelandsthuscultivatedconsistexclusivelyofthedomainlandsattachedtotheAga's
　　Timar，orwhetherthisrentispaidinconsiderationofstockadvancedtotherayah。toenablehimtocultivatebetterthelands
　　ofwhichbeishimselfthehereditarytenant，Ihavenomaterialsforjudging。Itisprobablethatmortitaearefoundofbothdescriptions。ThereareevidentlysomeadvantagesintheTurkishsystemcomparedwiththoseofIndiaorPersia。Thepermanenceand
　　moderationofthemiriorlandrent，isaverygreatone。Ifcollectedonanequitablesystem，thatrentwouldbenomorethan
　　areasonablelandtax，andtheuniversalproprietorshipoftheSultanwouldbereducedtoamerenominalorhonorary
　　superiority，likethatclaimedbymanyoftheChristianmonarchsofEurope。Wemayadd，thattheTurkishgovernmenthas
　　neverbeensowhollyunequaltothetaskofcontrollingitsofficers，asthefeebledynastiesofDelhiintheirdecline:norso
　　rapaciousandcapriciousinitsownexactionsastheShahsofPersia:butitscomparativemoderationandstrengthhave
　　remaineduselesstoitsunhappysubjects，fromadegreeofsupinenessandindifferenceas
　　tothemalversationsofitsdistant
　　officers，whichmaybetraced，partlyperhapstothebigotrywhichhasmadethecommanderofthefaithfulcarelessaboutthe
　　treatmenthisChristiansubjectsreceivedfromMahometanofficers:andpartlytoanobstinateignoranceoftheordinaryarts
　　ofcivilizedgovernments，whichthevanityoftheOttomanshascherishedasifitwereamerit，andwhichtheirbigotryhas
　　alsohelpedtorecommendtotheirgoodopinion。Nearthecapital，andinthecountrieswheretheTurksthemselvesare
　　numerous，therearesomeboundstotheoppressionofthePachasandAgas。TheTurks，secureofjusticeiftheycancontrive
　　tobeheardbythesuperiorauthorities，havefoundthemeansofprotectingtheirpersonsandproperties，bybelongingto
　　societies，whichareboundasbodies，toseekjusticeforthewrongsofindividualmembers。
　　Butinthedistantprovincesno
　　sectissafe。Thecryoftheoppressediseasilystifled，andiffaintlyheard，seemshabituallydisregarded。TheSultanindeed
　　abstains，withsingularforbearance，fromanyattemptstoraisetherevenuepaidtohimself；butprovideditisregularly
　　transmittedbythePachasoftheprovinces，hecareslittlebywhatmeans，orwithwhatadditionalextortions，itiswrung
　　fromthepeople。Theconsequencesaresuchasmightbeexpected。ThejealousyofthegovernmentallowsthePachasto
　　remaininofficebutashorttime，theknowledgeofthisinflamestheircupidity，andthewretchedcultivatorsareallowedto
　　existinpeaceuponthesoil，onlywhiletheysubmittoexactionswhichhavenootherlimitthanthephysicalimpossibilityofgettingmorefromthem。VolneyhasaccuratelydescribedtheeffectofthisstateofthingsinSyriaandEgypt。"TheabsolutetitleoftheSultantothe
　　soilappearstoaggravatetheoppressionofhisofficers。Thesonisnevercertainofsucceedingtothefather，andthe
　　peasantryoftenflyindesperationfromasoilwhichhasceasedtoyieldthemthecertaintyofevenabaresubsistence。
　　Exactions，undiminishedinamount，aredemanded，andasfaraspossibleextorted，fromthosewhoremain；depopulation
　　goeson，thewasteextendsitself，anddesolationbecomespermanent。"Itisthusthatascantyandmostmiserableremnantof
　　thepeoplearefoundoccupyingtracts，whichwerethegloryofancientcivilization；andofwhichtheclimateandthesoilare
　　such，thatmenwouldmultiplyandwouldenrich，almostwithouteffort，themselvesandtheirmasters；didthegeneral
　　governmentthinkfittoprotectitssubjectswithhalftheenergyitsometimesexerts，toforcethespoilerstodisgorgea
　　miserablepittanceofplunderintotheimperialtreasury。
　　SECTIONV。
　　OfRyotRentsinChina。WeknowenoughofChinatobeaware，thatthesovereignisthere，aselsewhereinAsia，thesoleproprietorofthesoil:but
　　wehardlyknowenoughtojudgeaccuratelyofthepeculiarmodificationswhichthissystemofimperialownershiphas
　　receivedinthatcountry。ThemannerinwhichtheChinesegovernmentassumespossessionoftheland，andimposesarent
　　uponitinthecaseofnewconquests，iscuriouslyillustratedbyaletterofavictoriousChinesecommandertotheEmperor，
　　publishedbyMr。Patton。17Althoughone-tenthoftheproduceisthenominalrentinChina，itisnotunlikelythatavery
　　differentportionisactuallycollected。Itwouldbeveryinterestingtohavemoremultipliedanddetailedobservationsonthe
　　practicaleffectsofthesystemamongtheChinese，thanthejealousyofthegovernmentislikelysoontogiveopportunityforobtaining。TheprogressandeffectsofryotrentsinChina，mustalmostnecessarilyhavebeenverydifferentfromthoseexhibitedby
　　India，Persia，orTurkey。Intheselastcountries，thevicesofthegovernment，andtheoppressionanddegradationresulting
　　fromthem，haveleftuslittlemeansofjudgingwhatmightbetheresultsofthesystemitself，ifconductedforany
　　considerableperiodbyanadministrationmoremildandforbearing，andcapableofgivingsecuritytothepersonsand
　　propertyofthecultivators。InChinathisexperimentseemstohavebeenfairlytried。Theartsofgovernmentare，toacertain
　　extent，understoodbythelaboriouslyeducatedcivilians，bywhosehandstheaffairsoftheEmpirearecarriedon；thecountry
　　has，tillverylately，beenremarkablyfreefromintestineconvulsionorseriousforeignwars，andtheadministrationhasbeen
　　wellorganized，pacificandefficient。ThewholeconductindeedoftheEmpire，presentsastrikingcontrasttothatofthe
　　neighbouringAsiaticmonarchies，thepeopleofwhich，accustomedtoseeviolenceandbloodshed
　　thecommoninstruments
　　ofgovernment，expressgreatwonderatthespectacleoftheChinesestatesmenupholdingtheauthorityofthestateratherby
　　thepenthanthesword。18Oneeffectweknowtohavefollowedfromthepublictranquillity:thespreadofagriculture，and
　　anincreaseofpeoplemuchbeyondthatoftheneighbouringcountries。WhilenotonehalfofIndiahaseverbeenreclaimed，andlessstillofPersia，Chinaisasfullycultivated，andmorefullypeopledthanmostEuropeanmonarchies。Whetheranyclassofsubordinateproprietorsexistsbetweenthecrownandthepersonspayingproducerentsliketothe
　　Zemindars，ofIndia；whetherthepersonsactuallyliableforthepro。ducerents，arethecultivatingpeasantsthemselves，ora
　　classabovethem，wehavenosufficientdatatodetermine。Insomecases，atleast，theactualcultivatorsarepersonshiringthegroundfromthoseliableforthecrown，andpayingthemhalftheproduce。ThereareabundantindicationsthattheChinesepopulationhas，insomepartsoftheEmpire，increasedbeyondthenumber
　　forwhichtheterritorycanproduceaplentifulsubsistence，andthattheyareinastateofthemostwretchedpenury。Thevery
　　facilitiesforincreasewhichgoodgovernmentgivestoaryotpopulation，willusuallybefollowedbysuchaconsequence，if
　　intheprogressoftheirmultiplicationacertainadvancehasnottakenplaceinthehabitsandcivilizationofthemassofthe
　　people。Theabsenceofthatimprovementmayflowfromvariouscauses，whichinunfoldingthesubjectofpopulation，itwill
　　bepartofourbusinesstodistinguish。WeknowenoughofChinatobesure，thatobstaclestothe
　　ameliorationofthehabits
　　andcharacterofthemassofthepeople，existinabundancethere，andthereforetherapidspreadofpopulation，uptoa
　　certainpoint，wouldcertainlybethefirsteffectofamildadministration。AccordingtoKiaproth，thenumberofryots
　　paysanscontribuablesatthetimeoftheMantchouconquestin1644，wasregisteredastwenty-sixmillions，whileallother
　　classeswereestimatedatelevenmillions。Andsincethattimehecalculatesthatthewholepopulationhasquadrupled。
　　TherevenueofChinaamountstoabouteighty-fourmillionsofouncesofsilver。Ofthisrevenue，aboutthirty-threemillions
　　ispaidinmoney，andaboutfifty-onemillionsingrains，rice，&；c。，consumedforthemostpartbythelocaladministrationof
　　theprovinces。Aportiononly，ofthevalueofaboutsixmillionsofounces，isannuallyremittedtoPekin。Thereceiptofthis
　　hugerevenue，intheprimitiveshapeofagriculturalproduce，isastrikingproofthatthepowerandmeansoftheEmperorof
　　China，likethoseofothereasternsovereigns，areintimatelyconnectedwith，orratherfoundedon，hisrightsasuniversalproprietorofthesoil。19ThereareotherconsiderablecountriesinAsiainwhichwehavegoodreasontoconclude，thatryotrentsprevail；consisting，
　　first，ofthecountriesbetweenHindostanandChina，theBirmanEmpire，anditsdependencies，CochinChina，&；c。；and，
　　secondly，ofthestatesinhabitedbyagriculturalTartars，northoftheHimalayamountainsandeastofPersia，Samarcan，
　　Bokhara，andthestatesofLittleBucharia:butthepeculiarmodificationsthesystemmayreceiveinthesecountries，andthe
　　detailsoftherelationstherebetweenlandlordandtenant，areatpresentevenmoreoutofourreachthaninthecaseof
　　China。
　　SECTIONVI。
　　MixtureofotherRentswithRyot。Onexamining，whereweareabletodoitminutely，thestateofthecountriesinwhichryotrentsprevail，weareimmediately
　　struckwiththefact，thattheyaresometimesmixedupwithbothlaborrentsandmetayerrents。Thelandthenpresentsa
　　strangecomplicationofinterests。Thereisanhereditarytenant，liabletoaproducerenttothecrown，andbycustomand
　　prescriptionirremoveablewhilehepaysit。Thissametenant，receivingsomeassistanceinseedandimplements，paysa
　　secondproducerenttoanotherperson，whosecharacterfluctuatesbetweenthatofanhereditaryofficerofthecrown，and
　　thatofasubordinateproprietor；andsometimesathirdrentispaidtothissubordinateproprietor，inlabor，exertedonlandcultivatedforhisexclusivebenefit。Tobeginwiththelaborrents，thusengraftedonryotrents。TheRyotofBengaloftengrantsaplotofhisgroundtoa
　　ploughmanwhoassistshim。Thisisapurelaborrent，paidbytheunder-tenant。TheZemindarsoftendemandfromtheryots
　　themselves，acertainquantityoflabor，tobeperformedontheirdomainlands。Thisdemandisoftenexcessive，andisthe
　　sourceofgrievousoppressionandfrequentcomplaint，bothinIndiaandPersia。Whenmoderatehowever，itisconsidered
　　legal，andthenformsanotherlaborrent，paidbytheryothimself。TheAgasofTurkeyoftenforcetherayahsoftheirZaims
　　orTimars，toperformacertainnumberofdays'workontheirownprivatefarms。Thisisunquestionablyaltogetheranillegalexaction；butissocustomarythatitmustbecountedinpracticeasanadditionalrent。MetayerrentstoohaveaconstanttendencytospringupandengraftthemselvesonryotrentsthroughoutAsia，whereverthe
　　moderationandefficiencyofthegovernmentissuchastoensureprotectiontothepropertyadvancedtothecultivator，or
　　wherevertherelationofthepartyadvancingstocktothecultivator，issuchastogiveapeculiarpowerofenforcing
　　payment，andapeculiarinterestinassistingcultivation。BoththegovernmentandtheZemindarsinIndiaoccasionally
　　advanceseedandstocktotheryot。Thegovernmentreluctantly，andonlywhenitcannotavoidit:thelandsthuscultivated
　　onthepartofgovernment，arecalledcossandcomar；andtogetthemintothehandsofryots，whocancultivatethemselves，
　　seemstohavebeenalwaysanobjectofpolicy。TheZemindarsmorereadilyandhabituallymakesuchadvances，andastheir
　　shareoftheproduceisthenregulatedwhollybytheirprivatebargainwiththeryot，henodoubtisoccasionallymuch
　　oppressed:butthisisnotalwaysthecase。InPersiaparticularly，thisarrangementisconsideredthebestforthetenant；
　　becauseinthatcountry，itisonlyinthiscase，thattheZemindarorsubordinateproprietorundertakestowardoffthe
　　extortionoftheofficersofthecrown，andtosettlewiththemhimself。
　　SECTIONVII。
　　SummaryofRyotRents。Thereisnothingmischievousinthedirecteffectofryotrents。Theyareusuallymoderate；andwhenrestrictedtoatenth，or
　　evenasixth，fifth，orfourthoftheproduce，ifcollectedpeacefullyandfairly，theybecomeaspeciesoflandtax，andleave
　　thetenantabeneficialhereditaryestate。Itisfromtheirindirecteffects，therefore，andfromtheformofgovernmentinwhich
　　theyoriginate，andwhichtheyservetoperpetuate，thattheyarefullofevil，andarefoundinpracticemorehopelesslydestructiveofthepropertyandprogressofthepeople，thananyformoftherelationoflandlordandtenantknowntous。Theproprietaryrightsofthesovereign，andhislargeandpracticallyindefiniteinterestintheproduce，preventtheformation
　　ofanyreallyindependentbodyontheland。Bythedistributionoftherentswhichhisterritoryproduces，themonarch
　　maintainsthemostinfluentialportionoftheremainingpopulationinthecharacterofcivilormilitaryofficers。Thereremain
　　onlytheinhabitantsofthetownstointerposeachecktohispower:butthemajorityofthesearefedbytheexpenditureof
　　thesovereignorhisservants。Weshallhaveafitteropportunitytopointout，howcompletelytheprosperity，orratherthe
　　existence，ofthetownsofAsia，proceedsfromthelocalexpenditureofthegovernment。Asthecitizensarethusdestitute
　　fromtheirpositionofrealstrength，sotheAsiaticsovereigns，havingnobodyofpowerfulprivilegedlandedproprietorsto
　　contendwith，havenothadthemotiveswhichtheEuropeanmonarchshad，tonurseandfosterthetownsintoenginesof
　　politicalinfluence，andthecitizensareproverbiallythemosthelplessandprostrateoftheslavesofAsia。Thereexistsnothing
　　thereforeinthesocietybeneathhim，whichcanmodifythepowerofasovereign，whoisthesupremeproprietorofa
　　territorycultivatedbyapopulationofryotpeasants。Allthatthereisofrealstrengthinsuchapopulation，lookstohimas
　　thesolesourcenotmerelyofprotectionbutofsubsistence:heisbyhispositionandnecessarilyadespot。Buttheresultsof
　　Asiaticdespotismhaveeverbeenthesame:whileitisstrongitisdelegated，anditspowerabusedbyitsagents；whenfeeble
　　anddeclining，thatpowerisviolentlysharedbyitsinferiors，anditsstolenauthorityyetmoreabused。Initsstrengthandin
　　itsweaknessitisalikedestructiveoftheindustryandwealthofitssubjects，andalltheartsofpeace；anditisthiswhich
　　makesthatpeculiarsystemofrents，onwhichitspowerrests，particularlyobjectionableandcalamitoustothecountriesinwhichitprevails。Incountriescultivatedbyryots，thewagesofthemainbodyofthepeoplearedeterminedbytherenttheypay，asisthecase
　　itwillberememberedunderallvarietiesofpeasantrents。Thequantityofproducebeingdeterminedbythefertilityofthe
　　soil，theextentofhisallotmentsofland，andtheskill，industry，andefficiencyoftheryot:thedivitionofthatproduceonwhichhiswagesdepend，isdeterminedbyhiscontractwiththelandlord，thatis，bytherenthepays。Inlikemannertheamountofrentinsuchcountriesisdeterminedbytheamountofwages。Theamountoftheproducebeing
　　decidedasbefore，thelandlord'sshare，therent，dependsuponthecontracthemakeswiththelaborer，thatis，upontheamountdeductedaswages。Theexistenceandprogressofrentsundertheryotsystemisinnodegreedependentupontheexistenceofdifferentqualities
　　ofsoil，ordifferentreturnstothestockandlaboremployedoneach。Thesovereignproprietorhasthemeansofenablinga
　　bodyoflaborerstomaintainthemselves，whowithoutthemachineryoftheearthwithwhichhesuppliesthem，muststarve。Thiswouldsecurehimashareintheproduceoftheirlabor，thoughallthelandswereperfectlyequalinquality。Ryotrentsmayincreasefromtwocauses，fromanincreaseofthewholeproduce，effectedbythegreaterskill，industry，and
　　efficiencyofthetenant:orfromanincreaseofthesovereign'sproportionoftheproduce；theproduceitselfremainingthesame，andthetenant'ssharebecomingless。Whentherentincreasesandtheproduceremainsstationary，theincreaseindicatesnoaugmentationofpublicwealth。There
　　hasbeenatransferofwealth，butnoincreaseofit；andonepartyisimpoverishedbythepreciseamountthatanotheris
　　enriched。Butwhenryotrentsincreasebecausetheproducehasbecomelarger，thecountryisenrichedbyanadditionof
　　wealthtothefullamountoftheincrease。Itspowerofmaintainingfleetsandarmies，andalltheelementsofpublicstrength，
　　havebeenaugmentedtothatextent；therehasbeenarealincreaseofwealth，notameretransferofwhatbeforeexisted，
　　fromonehandtoanother。Suchanincreasetooindicatesanaugmentationoftherevenuesoftheryotsthemselves。Ifthetenthorsixthofthesovereignhasdoubled，thenine-tenthsorfive-sixthsoftheryothavedoubledalso。Theincreaseofrentswhichisthusseentogohandinhandwiththe，improvementofthegeneralwealthandstrength，isthat
　　whichaloneinthelongruncanreallybenefitthelandlord。Whileanincreaseofproducerentshasitssourceingreatercrops，
　　itmaygoontilltheskillofmanandthefertilityoftheearthhavereachedtheirmaximum，thatis，indefinitely。Asiatic
　　tenants，cultivatingwiththeirownsoilandclimate，andtheskillandenergyofthebestEuropeanfarmers，mightcreate
　　producemuchgreaterthananyyetknowninthatquarteroftheglobe，andbegreatlyimprovingtheirownrevenuewhile
　　theywerepayingincreasedrentstothesovereign。Andwhiletheprosperityoftheryotsthuskeptpacewiththeincreaseof
　　rents，theresultwouldbe，notmerelyanincreaseofthecropsonthelandsalreadycultivated，buttherapidspreadof
　　cultivationtootherlands。Aprotectedandthrivingandincreasingpopulationwouldspeedily
　　reclaimtherichwastesof
　　TurkeyandIndia，andcallbacktheirvanishedfertilitytothedesertedplainsofPersia，multiplyingateverystepboththe
　　directrevenueofthesovereignlandlord，andhisresourcesinthegeneralwealthofhispeople。TakingAsiaasawhole，such
　　aprogressseemsvisionary，butitisoccasionallyexhibited，onasmallerscale，inamannerwhichverydistinctlyprovesit
　　possible，andindeedeasyonthegreatest。20Anincreaseofrentsderivedfromastationaryproduce，andadiminutionofthe
　　ryot'sshare，areunfortunatelymorecommoninAsia，andleadtonosuchresults。Inthestateinwhichtheryotsusually
　　exist，todecreasetheirrevenueistoinjureifnottodestroytheirefficiencyasagentsofcultivation。Aseriousinvasionofitis
　　veryusuallyfollowed，andcarriedtoacertainextentitmustbefollowed，bythedesertionofthecultivatorsandthe
　　abandonmentofcultivation，andatotalcessationofrent。Thegreedinessofeasternrulersordinarilysnatchesatthebaitof
　　presentgain，andoverlooksordisregardstheverydifferentultimateconsequenceswhichfollowtheaugmentingtheirlanded
　　revenues，fromtheone，orfromtheother，ofthesesourcesofincrease。HenceinagreatmeasuretheactualstateofAsia，the
　　miseryofthepeople，thepovertyandfeeblenessofthegovernments。Anexaminationintothenatureandeffectsofryot
　　rents，receivesarealmostmournfulinterestfromtheconviction，thatthepoliticalandsocialinstitutionsofthepeopleofthis
　　largedivisionoftheearth，arelikelyformanylongagesyettocome，torestuponthem。Wecannotunveilthefuture，but
　　thereislittleinthecharacteroftheAsiaticpopulation，whichcantemptuseventospeculateuponatime，whenthatfuture，withrespecttothem，willessentiallydifferfromthepastandthepresent。1。TheyhavebeenintroducedbyAsiaticsintoTurkeyinEurope。TheyexistinEgypt；andmayperhapshereafterbetracedinAfrica。2。Elphinstone'sCaubul，Vol。II。p。215。Whenthepeoplearecollectedintocamps，theyaregovernedbytheirown
　　Mooshirs，withoutanyreferencetotheKhaun，andwhentheyarescatteredoverthecountry，theysubsistwithoutany
　　governmentatall:butwhenamarchiscontemplated，theyimmediatelysubmittotheKhaun，andwheretheyhavetopassan
　　enemy'scountry，heisappointedheadoftheChelwashtees，assumesanabsoluteauthority，andbecomesanobjectofrespect