serfsontheestatesoftheclaimants。Thecontrastbetweentheconditionofthesepoorpeopleandthatoftherestofthe
population，becamethentoostrongtobeendured；butthoughthenaturallykindfeelingsofLouisappeartohavebeen
rousedupontheoccasion，heventurednofarther，thantogivelibertytotheserfsormainmortablesonhisowndomains，and
toabolishindirectlythedroitdesuite，byforbiddinghistribunalstoseizethepersonorpropertyofserfs，whohadonce
becomedomiciledinfreedistricts。Intheedictpublishedbytheunfortunatemonarchonthissubject，hedeclaresthatthis
stateofslaveryexistsinseveralofhisprovinces，andincludesagreatnumberofhissubjects，andlamentingthatheisnot
richenoughtoransomthemall，hestatesthathisrespectfortherightsofpropertywillnotallowhimtointerferebetween
themandtheirowners，butheexpressesahopethathisexampleandtheloveofhumanitysopeculiartotheFrenchpeople，wouldleadunderhisreigntotheentireemancipationofallhissubjects。17Toreturnhowevertoourimmediateobject，themetayertenantry。Inspiteofthecultivationbyvassalsandserfs，andthatat
onetimedoubtlesstoaveryconsiderableextent，themetayershadintheirpossessionbeforetherevolutionfour-seventhsof
thesurfaceofFrance。18Anotherone-sixthorone-seventhwasinthepossessionofcapitalistsfindingtheirownstockandpayingmoney-rents。19Theremainderwasheldbytheproprietors，orbyserforfeudaltenantry。ThetermsonwhichtheFrenchmetayersheldtheirfarms，differedmuchfromagetoage:thesevariationsdonot
immediatelystriketheeyeofanobserver，becausethenominalrent，andnominalshareofthetenant，havechangedbutlittle，
andthemetayerstillverygenerallytakesthatportionoftheproduce，viz，thehalf，fromwhichhisoriginalnameof
medietariuswasderived。Butwhilethemetayertenantpaysnominallythesamerent，hisownshareoftheproducemaybe
diminishedintwomodes:byhisbeingsubjectedtoagreaterquantityofthepublicburthens:orbythesizeofhismetairie
beingreduced。Bythissecondmodeofreduction，IamnotawarethattheFrenchmetayersufferedmuch:fiftyacreswasnotanunusualsizeforametairie；inpoordistrictstheycomprisedamuchlargerquantityofland。20Bythefirstmodeofreducinghisshareoftheproduce，thatis，bytheincreaseofthepublicburthenswhichhehadtobear，
themetayersufferedtoanextent，fatalbothtohisowncomfortsandtotheprosperityofagriculture；acircumstance，which
hadagreatshareinconvertingthepeasantryintothoserecklessinstrumentsofmischief，whichtheyprovedinmanyinstancestobe，duringtherevolution。TheTaillewasanimpositionwhichtheFrenchantiquariesthinktheycantracetotheageoftheEmperorAugustus；21we
knowthatitwasleviedbythebaronsontheirvassalsduringtheagesoffeudalanarchy；bythesovereignassovereign，that
isbeyondthelimitsofhisowndomains，asearlyas1325:thatitbecameunderCharlesVII。，in1444，anannualtax，and
continuedafterwardstobethemainbranchoftherevenueofthekingdom。22Itwasmeanttobeleviedaccordingtothe
meansofthecontributor，andwasextremelydefectivebothinitsprincipleandmodeofimposition；buteventhesedefects
wouldnot，perhaps，havemadeitintolerable，haditnotbeenforitsgraduallyincreasingamount，whichatlastalmost
absorbedthedailybreadofthepeasant。Itwouldhavebeenwellforthesepoorpeoplehadthatprovedtrueintheircase，
whichhaslatelybeenpromulgatedwithgreatconfidenceasanuniversaltruth，namely，that
whenoncecertainhabitsoflife
areestablishedamongapopulation，adiminutionoftheirmeansofsubsistenceisfollowedinvariablybyaslackenedrateof
theincreaseoftheirnumbers，andaconsequentriseofwages，whichrestoresthemtotheirformerposition。Theirswasa
differentlot。AsthecommandoftheFrenchpeasantsoverthemeansofexistencebecameless，theirhabitsaltered，buttheir
numbersdidnotdecrease；someonewasalwaysfoundreadytooccupyametairie，"parceque，saysM。DestuttdeTracy，indescribingtheirmiseryilyatoujoursdesmalheureuxquinesaventquedevenir。"Themodeinwhichthetaillegraduallyproducedthedegradationofthepeasantry，isfeelingly，and，nodoubt，accuratelydescribedbyTurgot，23inhiscorrespondencewiththeministers，whileintendantoftheLimosin。Afterremarking，thatwhilethecultivatorreallyreceivedhalfhisproduce，hehadthemeansofbecominggraduallyasmall
capitalist，andultimatelyofprovidingthestockandpayingamoney-rent，heobserves，thatifthetaxhadfromitsoriginbeen
laidonthelandholders，thisnaturalprogressofeventswouldnothavebeenderanged，andwouldhaveprocuredtothe
ownertheenjoymentofhisrevenue，withoutanycareonhispart:butthatthetaillewasatfirstaspeciesofpoll-tax，and
verylight，fromwhichthenobleswereexempt:thatasthetaxincreased，itbecamenecessarytolevyitinproportiontothe
meansofthecultivators，whichwerecalculatedaccordingtotheextentoftheiroccupations，amethodbywhichthe
privilegeofthenobleswaseluded:thatwhiletheimpositionwasmoderate，themetayerpaiditbyretrenchinghiscomforts；
butthatthetaxincreasingconstantly，theportionofthecultivatorwassomuchdiminished，thatatlasthewasreducedto
themostprofoundmisery。Thesereflexions，hesays，explainhowitcametobepossible，thatthe
cultivatorsshouldbe
plungedintotheexcessofmiseryinwhichtheythenexistedintheLimosinandAngoumois，andperhapsinotherprovinces
of"petiteculture。"Thatmiseryhedeclaresissuch，thatonthegreaterpartofthedomains，thecultivatorshadnot，after
payingtheirtaxes，morethanfrom25to30livrestospendannuallyforeachperson，notinmoney，butreckoningthevalue
ofallthattheyconsumedinkind；oftentheyhadless，andwhentheycouldsubsistnolonger，theproprietorwasobligedto
contributetotheirmaintenance。Someproprietors，headds，hadbeenatlastforcedtoperceive，thattheirpretended
exemptionhadbeenmuchmoremischievousthanusefultothem；andthatanimpositionwhichhadentirelyruinedtheir
cultivators，hadfallenbackwhollyonthemselves。Buttheillusionsofselfinterestillunderstood，supportedbyvanity，had
longmaintainedtheirground，andwereonlydissipatedwhenthingswerecarriedtosuchan
excess，thattheproprietors
wouldhavefoundnoonetocultivatetheirlands，iftheyhadnotconsentedtocontributewiththeirmetayerstothepayment
ofapartoftheimposition。ThatcustomhadbeguntointroduceitselfintosomepartsoftheLimosin，buthadnotextended
itselfmuch:theproprietoryieldedtosuchanarrangementonly，whenhecouldfindnometayerwithoutit；andeveninthatcasethemetayerwasalwaysreducedtowhatwasstrictlynecessary24topreventhisdyingfromhunger。Thetaxevidentlydidnotbegintomovefromtheshouldersofthelaborertothoseoftheemployer，tillthefirsthadbeen
graduallyreducedtotheminimumofsubsistence，andthenonlymovedtosuchanextentaswasnecessarytopreservetohimthatminimum。Therevolutionconvertedmanyofthesemetayersintosmallproprietors，buttheystillaboundinFrance；andtheircondition
seemstohavealteredforthebetter，lessthanmighthavebeenexpectedfromthechangeswhichhavetakenplaceinthe
systemoftaxation。Mr。DestuttdeTracy，amemberoftheInstitute，andpeerofFranceundertheEmperor，whostates
himselftohavebeenfor40yearsproprietorofadomainfarmedbymetayers，givesawretchedaccountoftheircondition，
andstatesthatheisacquaintedwithmetairies，whichhavenever，inthememoryofman，suppliedthefoodofthemetayers
fromtheirownhalfoftheproduce。AshisdescriptionisthemostauthenticaccountofthistenancyasitexistsatpresentinFrance，Isubjoinit。25"Ilsformentcequel'onappellecommuné；mentdesdomainesondesmetairics，etilsyattachentfrequemmentautantetplus
deterresqu'iln'yenadanslesgrandesfermes，surtoutsil'onnededaignepasdemettreenlignedecomptelesterresvagues，
quiordinairementnesontpasraresdanscespays，etquinesontpastout-à；-faitsansutilité；，puisqu'ons'ensertpourle
pacage，onmemepouryfairedetempsentempsquelquesemblavuresafindelaisserreposerleschampsplushabituellement
cultivé；s。
***Leproprié；taireestdoncreduitalesgarnirlui-mê；medebestiaux，d'utensiles，etdetoutcequiestnecessaireal'exploitation，
etyé；tablirunefamilledepaysans，quin'ontqueleurbras，etaveclesquelsilconvientordinairement，aulieudeleurdonner
desgages，deleurabandonnerlamoitié；duproduit，pourlesalairedeleurspeines。C'estdelà；qu'ilssontappelè；smetayera，
travailleursmoitié；。Silaterreesttropmauvaise，cettemoitié；desproduitseatmanifestementinauffisantepourfairevivre，
mê；memiserablement，lenombred'hommesnecessairepourIatravailler；ilss'endettentbientô；t，etoneatobligedelea
renvoyer。Cependantonentrouvetoujourspourlearemplacer，parcequ'ilyatoujoursdesmalheureuxquinesaventque
devenir。Ceux-là；mê；mevontailleurs，oû；ilsontsouventlemê；mesort。Jeconnaisdecesmé；tairies，quidememoired'hommen'ontjamaisnourrileurslaboreursaumoyendeleurmoitié；defruits。"ItappearsbyanarticleintheForeignQuarterly，publishedwhilethesepageswereinthepress，thatinspiteofthe
multiplicationofsmallproprietorssincetherevolution，metayersaresupposedstilltocultivateone-halfofFrance。Their
actualconditionislittleimproved，itappears，bythechangewhichhastakenplaceinthesystemoftaxation，andtheir
sufferingsareaggravatedbythespreadofaclassofmiddle-menalwaysexistingtosomeextentwhowithoutchangingthe
termsonwhichtheactualcultivatorholdsthesoil，paysamoney-renttotheproprietor，andgrindsandoppressesthetenant
tomakehisbargainprofitable。TheconditionoftheFrenchmetayershasbeentreatedofwithsomefulness。Thiswillenable
ustoreviewmorerapidlythesameclassoftenantryexistinginothercountries，anddifferingfromtheFrenchonlyinlocal
peculiarities。
SECTIONV。
OnMetayerRentsinItaly。ThedeclineofthepoweroftheRomanandByzantineEmperorsinItalywasgradualandslow；theshadeofhergreatname
seemedtosuspendashieldforatimebeforetheprecinctsoftheancientcapital。Boththelanguageandthehistoryofthe
Italiansindicate，thatthealterationsinthehabitsandinthemechanismofsociety，producedintheoriginalseatsofthe
empirebythefinalchangeofmastersandintermixtureofraces，weremuchlessviolentandgeneralthanthosewhichtook
placeinthedistantprovinces。FrommanydistrictsofItalyitisprobablethatthecolonimedietariineverdisappeared，and
thatthepeasantswhonowcultivatethesoilhavesucceededtotheminanunbrokenline。Thelargegrazingfarmsof
Lombardy，thetractsoftheCampagna，themaremnaewhichoccuronthecoast，areoccupiedbycapitalists；forwherever
largeherdsofcattlearetobemaintained，neitherthepeasantnorthelandlordsareabletosupplythem。Butinspiteofthese，
andperhapsotherexceptions，Italy，fromtheAlpstoCalabria，isstillcoveredwithmetayers。26ThemetairiesofItalyare
lessthanthoseofFrance。Theirextentwilleverywherebegovernedbywhatthelandlordsupposestobehisinterest:ifitis
anobjectwithhimthathisestatesshouldnothavefewerhandsthanareequaltoitscompletecultivation，soitisanobject
withhim，thatitshouldnothavemore。Thenumberofacreswhichametayerandhisfamilycanmanage，mustdependmuch
onthecourseofcropsandmodeoftillage。InFrancethesystemofcropping，onceuniversalinNorthernEurope，still
prevailsextensively；thatis，corncropswhilethelandcanbearthem，andthenfallows，orleysofsomeyearsstanding，with
somewastegroundforpasture。Onsuchaplanafamilyrequireandcanmanageaconsiderabletract。InItalytherotationof
cropspractisedbytheRomansisstillcarriedon；theleguminarecommendedbyVirgilareextensivelycultivated，andthe
cattleareoftenfedfromtheproduceofthearableground。Onsuchasystem，amuchsmallerquantityoflandwillemploy
andmaintainafamily。Metayersarealwaysfoundreadytoacceptasubdivision。Forreasons
weshallhavetoexplain
presently，thosemotivestoavoluntaryforbearancefromearlymarriageswhichaffectthehigherclassesinallcountries，and
allclassesinsomecountrieshaverarelymuchinfluenceonapeasantryreceivingthewagesoftheirlaborintheshapeofraw
produceraisedbythemselves。Sucharemetayers:theirmultiplicationas，wehaveseeninthecaseofFrance，usuallygoeson
tilltheyarestoppedbythesmallnessoftheirmaintenance，or，asmoreoftenhappens，bythepolicyoftheproprietors
refusingtosubdividelands，alreadysuppliedwithlaborbeyondthepointtheydeemmostadvantageoustothemselves。27ThemetayerfarmsindifferentpartsofItalyareofdifferentsizes；thoseofTuscanyincludeabouttenacres。ButinNaples
theydonotexceedfive，andthetenantstherepaytwo-thirdsoftheproduceasrents。Theirclimateandsoilenablethemto
dothis:thefirstpermitsthemtodispensewithmanythingswhicharestrictlynecessarieselsewhere，whiletheearthwith
bounteousfertilityproduceseightcropsinfiveyears，infieldsshadedatthesametimebyaprofitableforestoffruittreesand
vines。Still，makingampleallowancefortheseadvantages，one-thirdoftheproduceoffiveacresmustyieldamiserable
subsistencetoapeasant，subjectallthewhiletotheexactionsofaneedygovernment，andofanaristocracyarmedwithall
sortsofmischievouspowersandprivileges，andextremelyinclinedtoabusethem。TheTuscanmetayersareconsideredtobe
bestoff，andnearFlorencehaveaconsiderableappearanceofease，whichisattributedpartlytothemanufactureofstraw
hats，anemploymentverygeneralamongthem。Butatadistancefromthetown，theircircumstancesarewretched；theirfood
coarse，bad，andscanty；andtheirpenurysuchaskeepstheminastateofperpetualdebttothelandlordsforfoodorassistanceofdifferentkinds。28Mr。Coxe，whosomeyearssincevisitedtheValteline，andMr。Gilly，whomorelatelywasamongtheVaudois，givea
miserableaccountofthepovertyofthemetayers。IntheprovincesofSpaininwhichtheymostabound，theyaresaidtobeextremelypoor。ThecultivationoftheCanaryIslandsisintheirhands。InAfghaunisthaun，araceoftenantsisfoundcalledBuzgurs，29whoseemtodifferinnorespectfromthemetayersof
WesternEurope。ThisisasingularinstanceinAsia，wherethistenancy，althoughsometimespartiallyengraftedonRyot
rents，isperhapsinnootherspottobefoundexistinginitspureform。ButAfghaunisthaunisastrangeland，inwhich，from
thepeculiaritiesofitsgeographicalandpoliticalcondition，fragmentsofalmostallthecivilinstitutionsknownintherestof
theworldcontinuetoco-existinastateofconfusionapproachingtoanarchy。
SECTIONVI。
SummaryofMetayerRents。Uponcomparingthemetayerwiththeserf，itisobviousthathehasmanyadvantages:hisbeingentrustedwiththewhole
careofthecultivationisacircumstancewhichnotonlyindicateshissupenorestimationinsociety，butbringswithit
substantialimprovementsinhiscondition:wehavenoticedthattheforcedlaboroftheserfsupposessomepowerof
summarycoercioninthemaster，withoutwhich，cultivationcouldhardlygoon。Butthemetayerisfreedfromthegalling
superintendanceoftheproprietor，andthetermsoftheirconnectiondonotmakesuchasummarypowernecessary。That，of
themetayers，manywereonceslavestherecanbelittledoubt；theyare，andhavebeenforsomeagesgenerally，Ibelieve
universally，freemen；andthesovereignsofthedifferentcountriesinwhichtheyexist，havebeenableinmostcasessofartoextendthepoweroftheroyaltribunals，aseffectuallytosecuretheirpersonsandeffects。Anotheradvantageofthemetayer，whichinpractice，itistobefeared，islessthanmightbehoped，isthis；that，asthe
landlord'srentdependsupontheamountoftheproduce，hehasanobviousinterestinpreventingtheenergyorthemeansof
thetenantfrombeinglessenedbyoppression。Ahalfstarvedmetayermustneedsbeabadagent
inacultivation，onthe
efficiencyofwhichtheproprietor'srevenuedepends，andthelossesofwhichhemustshare。ButwhatTurgotcalls"the
illusionsofself-interestillunderstood，"orinplainterms，perhaps，thecovetousnessandignoranceoftheproprietors，have
preventedthetenantfromreapingallthebenefitthisconsiderationmighthavebeenexpectedtosecuretohim。Whilethe
tailleinFrance，forinstance，couldbeextractedfromthetenant，wehaveseenthathewasmadetobearit，thoughitkept
himonthevergeofstarvation；andinothercountries，eitherthetoogreatsubdivisionofthesoil，theincreaseofthe
landlord'sproportionoftheproduce，orthesaddlingthetenantwithburthensomeconditionsastothetaxes，havelefthimin
astateofgreatandhelplessdepression。Stillthecommoninteresthehaswiththelandlordinthesuccessofhisindustryis
neverwhollywithoutitseffects。Whenreducedtoextremities，thetenanthasapatrontoapplyto，whocannotforhisown
sakelethimperish，orevensufferbeyondacertainpoint；30andincalamitousseasons，advancesoffoodandothernecessariesbythelandlordsarealmostuniversal。Butiftherelationbetweenthemetayerandtheproprietorhassomeadvantageswhencomparedwiththatbetweentheserf
tenantpayinglaborrentsandhislord:ithasalsosomeveryseriousinconveniencespeculiartoitself。Thedividedinterest
whichexistsintheproduceofcultivation，marsalmosteveryattemptatimprovement。Thetenantisunwillingtolistentothe
suggestionsofthelandlord，thelandlordreluctanttoentrustadditionalmeansinthehandsofaprejudiced，andusuallyvery
ignoranttenant。Thetenant'sdreadofinnovationisnatural；hemerelyexistsuponasystemofcultivationfamiliartohim:the
failureofanexperimentmightleavehimtostarve。Thisdread，however，makesitalmostimpossibletointroduce
improvementsintothepracticeofthemetayers。ArthurYoungwitnessedmanyattemptsmadebyamateuragriculturistson
theirownestates；andconcludeshisaccountofthembydeclaring，thatwithmetayertenants，thecommonsystemofthe
countrymustbeadheredto，beitgoodorbad。31Whilethetenantisfrightenedatachangeofsystem，thelandlordhangs
back，withahardlylessmischievousreluctance，fromtheadvancesnecessarytocarryonefficientlyanysystemwhatever。
Whenstockistobeadvancedbyoneparty，andusedbyanotherfortheircommonbenefit，somewasteandcarelessnessin
thereceivingparty，greatjealousyandreluctanceinthecontributingparty，follownaturally。Theproprietors，saysTurgot，
whoonlyadvancestockbecausetheycannotavoidit，andwhoarethemselvesnotrich，confinetheiradvancestowhatis
moststrictlynecessary；accordingly，thereisnocomparisontobemadebetweenthestockadvancedbyaproprietorforthe
cultivationofhismetairies，andthatusedbyfarmersindistrictscultivatedbycapitalists。32Weknow，however，fromotherauthority，thatthecapitaltowhichthatofthemetayerswasthusdecidedlyinferior，wasitselfextremelyscanty。33Wheretheproprietor，areneedy，careless，orabsent，thecasebecomesofcoursemuchworse。"Inbadyears，Turgot
remark。theproprietorisobligedtofeedthemetayers，forfearoflosingallhehasadvanced。Thismodeofmanagement
requiresonthepartoftheproprietorcontinualattention，andanhabitualresidence:accordingly，ifitisseenthattheshareof
aproprietorareinthesmallestdegreederanged，orifheisobligedfromanycausetoabsenthimselfhismetairiesceaseto
producehimanything。Theestatesofwidowsandminorsusuallyrelapseintowaste。"34Whenwerememberthenumberof
proprietor。whowerenecessarilyabsentfrommilitarydutiesorothercauses，andaddthemtothewidows，andminors，and
personswhoseaffairswerederanged，thelistofestateseitherverybadlycultivated，ornotcultivatedatall，willappear
formidableindeed，andwearepreparedtohearwithoutsurprise"oftheexhaustedstateoftheprovince"andthe
"abandonmentofmanymetairieestatesforwantofcattle，andtheinabilityoftheproprietorstoprovidestock。"35Thecauseswhich，undertheeyesofTurgot，producedtheseeffectsintheLimosin，mustactmoreorlessinallthemetayercountriesofEurope，andmustproducemuchofthepovertytobeobservedinthem。Metayerrentsmayincrease，itisclear，fromtwocauses，fromanincreaseofthewholeproduceeffectedbythegreaterskill
orindustryofthetenant，orfromanincreaseofthelandlord'sproportionoftheproduce，theamountoftheproduceitself
remainingthesame。Whenrentincreases，andtheproduceremainsstationary，thecountryatlargegainsnothingbythe
increase；it。meansofpayingtaxes，ofsupportinglootsandarmies，arejustwhattheywerebefore:therehasbeenatransfer
ofwealth，butnoincreaseofit；butwhenmetayerrentsincrease，becausetheproducehasbecomelarger，thenthecountry
itselfisrichertothatextent；itspowerofpayingtaxes，ofsupportingfleetsandarmieshasbeenincreased；therehasbeenan
increaseofwealth，notameretransferfromonehandtoanotherofwhatbeforeexisted。Suchanincreaseofrentsindicates
alsoanotherincreaseofwealthasextensive，andmorebeneficial，whichisfoundintheaugmentationoftherevenuesofthemetayersthemselves，whosehalftheproduceisaugmentedtopreciselythesameextentasthelandlord's。Theexistenceofrentsuponthemetayersystem，isinnodegreedependentupontheexistenceofdifferentqualitiesofsoilor
ofdifferentreturnstothestockandlaboremployed。Thelandlordsofanycountrywho，withsmallquantitiesofstock，have
quantitiesofland，sufficienttoenableabodyofpeasantlaborerstomaintainthemselves，wouldcontinuetoderivearevenue
aslandownersfromsharingintheproduceoftheindustryofthoselaborers，thoughallthelandsinthecountrywereperfectlyequalinquality。Inmetayercountriesthewagesofthemainbodyofthepeopledependupontherenttheypay。Thequantityofproduce
beingdeterminedbythefertilityofthesoil，theextentofthemetairie，andtheskill，industry，andefficiencyofthemetayer，
thenthedivisionofthatproduce，onwhichdivisionhiswagesdepend，isdeterminedbyhiscontractwiththelandlord。Inlike
mannertheamountofrentinsuchcountriesisdeterminedbytheamountofwages。Thewholeamountofproducebeing
decidedasbefore，thelandlord'sshare，ortherent，dependsuponthecontracthemakeswiththelaborer，thatis，upontheamountdeductedaswages。Ofthethreelargeclassesofpeasantrents，metayerrentsprevailtheleastextensively。Theyspreadoveraportionofthe
cultivatedsurfaceoftheearthconsiderablylessthanthoseinwhichlaborrentsorryotrentspredominate。Buttheyoccupy
countrieswhichhavelongbeentheseatsofnationseminentintheforemostranksofcivilizedpeople，andwhicharelikelyformanyagestobeamongthemostdistinguisheddepositariesoftheknowledgeandtheartsofmankind。Thesetooareagriculturalnations:thatis，byfarthegreaterpartoftheirproductivepopulationisemployedinagriculture。
Theextentoftheirwealthmustbemainlydependent，therefore，onthesuccessoftheiragriculture，andthesuccessoftheir
agriculturewillbedeterminedinagreatdegreebythenatureoftheconditionsunderwhichthelandisoccupied，andbythecharacteroftheirtenantry。Notonlythewealthofanation，butthecompositionofsociety，theextentandtherespectiveinfluenceofthedifferent
classesofwhichitconsists，arepowerfullyaffectedbytheefficiencyofagriculture。Theextentoftheclassesmaintainedin
non-agriculturalemploymentsthroughouttheworld，mustbedeterminedbythequantityoffoodwhichthecultivators
producebeyondwhatisnecessaryfortheirownmaintenance。TheagriculturistsofEnglandforinstanceproducefood
sufficienttomaintainthemselves，anddoubletheirownnumbers。Nowtheexistenceofthislargenon-agricultural
population，thewealthandinfluenceofitsemployers，andofthosepersonswhotrafficintheproduceofitsindustry，affect
inaverystrikingmannertheactualelementsofpoliticalpoweramongtheEnglish，theirpracticalconstitution，andtheir
nationalcharacterandhabits。Totheabsenceofsuchabodyofnon-agriculturistsandofthewealthandinfluencewhich
accompanytheirexistence，wemaytracemanyofthepoliticalphenomenatobeobservedamongourcontinental
neighbours。Iftheagricultureofthoseneighboursshouldeverbecomesoefficient，astoenablethemtomaintaina
non-agriculturalpopulation，atallproportionabletoourown，theymayperhapsapproximate
toasocialandpolitical
organizationsimilartothatseenhere。Atalleventstheywillhavethemeansofdoingso。Iamgiving，itwillberemembered，
noopiniononthedesirablenessofsuchanapproximation，buttherecanbenoquestionastothestrikingeffectsthechangemustproduceontheirhabitsandinstitutions，andontheamountoftheirnationalstrengthandexternalinfluence。Thatnoverymarkedchangeintheefficiencyofagriculture，andintherelativenumbersofagriculturalandnon-agricultural
populationwilltakeplaceinanynation，whilethemetayersystemremainsinfullforce，iswhatweareentitledtoassume，
fromtheviewwehavealreadytakenoftheinherentfaultsandofthepasteffectsofthatsystem。Theactualprevalenceof
metayerrentstherefore，theirmodifications，theirgradualprogressinsomecasestowardsdifferentformsofholding，in
others，thesturdyresistancethesystemofferstotheassaultsoftimeandeventothewishesandtheeffortsofthose，who
wouldwillinglyridthemselvesofit；theseareallcircumstancestobestudiedcarefullyby
thosewhowoulddiscernthe
causesoftheactualstateofsomeofthemostinterestingcountriesinEurope，orspeculateupontheprogressoffuturechangeseitherintheirpoliticalandsocialinstitutions，orintheirrelativestrengthandpowerasnations。Totheseclaimstoanattentiveexaminationweaddanotherofnotlessimportance，whichhasbeenalreadyincidentally
mentioned，namely，thestrictconnectionwhichmetayerrentshaveincommonwiththeothersystemsofpeasantrentswith
thewagesofbyfarthelargerportionoftheindustriouspopulationofcountriesinwhichtheyprevail。Thisconnectionbrings
theireffectsintoclosecontactwiththecomforts，thecharacterandconditionofanimportantdivisionofthegreatfamilyof
mankind，andisalonesufficienttosecuretothem，inalltheirdetailsandvariations，theanxiousattentionofthestatesmanandpracticalphilanthropist。1。ThissketchofthetenantrypeculiartoearlyGreecemighthavebeenmademoreextensiveandperhapsmoreprecise。
Theymaybetracedinmanyotherdistricts，andsomedistinctionsmightcertainlybedrawnbetweentheclassesnamed:but
thisisasubjectintothedetailsofwhichitwouldbedifficulttoenter，withouteitherlaunchingintolengthydiscussion，or
statingshortlyasfacts，whatarereallyonlyconjectures。Thosewhomaywishtofollowthematteruptotheoriginal
testimony，onwhichallconclusionsrelatingtoitmustrest，mayconsultRuhnken'snotesonthewords，and
inhiseditionofthePlatonicLexiconofTimus，twonotesrelatingtotheinstitutionsofLaconiaandCrete，
affixedtoGö；ttling'seditionofAristotle'spolitics；andaboveallMiller'selaboratehistoryoftheDorianstates，avaluable
work，foratranslationofwhichtheEnglishpublicareabouttobeindebted，andverydeeplyindebtedcertainly，toMessrs。
TuffnellandLewis。WhilereferringtothetwolastoftheseGermanwriters，itmayberighttomentionthatthereareoneor
twopointsonwhichImustventuretodissentfromtheirconclusions:theseareshortlynoticedintheAppendix。
2。Aristotle'sPolitics，BookII。3。Boeckh，however，seemsofopinionthatatoneperiodofthehistoryofAttica，allthecultivatorsofitsterritorywere
Thetes。Vol。I。p。250。EnglishTranslation。Theymayhavebeenso；butitisimpossible，Ithink，toreadthefifthbookof
theMemorabilia，the？ofXenophon，withoutfeelingpersuaded，thatinhisdaystheverymemoryof
suchastateofthingswasgone。TheThetescontinuedtoexistasaclassinthestatelongaftertheyhadceasedtobeits
exclusivecultivators，iftheyeverweresuch。
4。Appendix。
5。Pol。BookI。Cap。iii。6。Aristot。Pol。BookVII。Cap。x。Ifthesecannotbeobtained，Aristotleexpressesawishforbarbarianperioecicompoundsoftheserf；metayer，andslaveofsimilardispositions。7。Arist。Pol。BookI。Cap。iv。Thosewhoareabletoescapethesevexations，procureastewardtoundertakethetask；whiletheythemselvesattendtopoliticsorphilosophy。8。SeeHistoricalOutlineoftheGreekRevolutionpublishedbyMurray，p。9。"Thenominalconditionsuponwhichthe
christianpeasantofEuropeanTurkeylaboursfortheTurkishproprietor，arenotoppressive:theywereamongthemany
establishedusagesofthecountryadoptedbytheOttomans，andthepracticeissimilartothatwhichisstillverycommonin
allthepoorercountriesofEurope。Afterthedeductionofaboutaseventhfortheimperialland-tax，thelandlordreceives
halftheremainder，oralargershare，accordingtotheproportionofseed，stock，andinstrumentsofhusbandrywhichhehas
supplied。"
9。Columella，BookIChap。i。
10。Ibid。BookI。Chap。i。11。Col。BookI。chap。i。Namquilonginqua，nedicamtransmarinaruramercantur，veluthaeredibuspatrimoniosuo，etquod
graviusest，vivi，ceduntservis。
12。Col。BookI。chap。i。
13。Col。Lib。I。chap。vii。14。Plin。Epist。BookIX。87。Itappearsfromanotherletterthatthemostexpensivestocksuppliedtothetenantrybythe
proprietorsconsistedoftheslaves。
15。Dict。deFinance，Vol。II。p。115。
16。HargreaveandButler'sNotesonCokeuponLittleton。Sect。800。NoteonTenantsincommon。
17。Forthisedict，seeDict。desFinances，atthewordMainmorte。18。ThisisthecalculationofDupresSt。Maur，sanctionedbyTurgot。AdamSmithstatesfive-sixths。Turgot，Vol。VI。p。
209。Smith，Vol。II。p。92。Editionof1812。ArthurYoungthinksseven-eighths，Vol。1。p。403。
19。ArthurYoung，Vol。1。p。402。20。ArthurYounghowever，itisrighttomention，cametoadifferentconclusion。"Thedivisionoffarms，"hesays，"andthe
populationissogreatthatthemiseryflowingfromitisinsomeplacesextreme。"Vol。1。p。404。hegivessomeinstances:but
itmaybequestionedwhetherthesewerenotsmallproprietorsorfeudaltenants。
21。Dict。desfinances。DiscoursPreliminaires，PartVII。andTom。III。p。687。
22。Dict。desFinances，Tom。III。p。638689。23。ByVaubanintheDixameRoyal，andinthe"DetaildelaFrance，"withmoredetailandanimation；butthesedescriptionsarelessexclusivelyapplicabletotheMetayierpeasantrythanTurgot's。24。Ainsi，mê；medanscecas-là；，lemetayeresttoujoursré；duità；cequ'ilfautpré；cisementpournepasmourirdefaim。Turgot，
Tom。IV。p。277。MemoirepresentedtotheCouncil，OeuvresdeTurgot，Tom。IV。p。271，272，274，275。
25。DestuttdeTracyTraité；D'EconomiePolitique，p:116。
26。Thatis，wherethelandsarelet:smallproprietorsarenotuncommon。27。Thereare，however，partsofTuscanywhereitisthecustomfortheeldestsononlytomarry，butnorestraintsofthis
kindhavepreventedtheItalianmetayers，generally，fromincreasingtilltheirnumbersbecamefullyequaltothedemandsoftheproprietors，andinmanycasesreallyburthensometoagriculture。28。ArthurYoung'sTravelsinFranceandItaly。Appendix。Thesevolumescontainmuchdetailedinformationonthe
situationofthemetayersinLombardyandTuscany。
29。Elphinston'sCaubul。Vol。1。p。471。
30。Turgot。DestuttTracy。ArthurYoung。
31。ArthurYoung'sTravelsinFrance。
32。OEuvresdeTurgot，Tom。IV。p。267。
33。ArthurYoung。
34。Turgot，Tom。VI。p。203，204。
35。Ibid。Tom。IV。p。802。
CHAP。IV。
SECT。I。
OnRyotRents。RyotRentsare，withafewexceptions，peculiartoAsia。1Theyareproducerentspaidbyalaborer，raisinghisownwages
fromthesoil，tothesovereignasitsproprietor。Theyareusuallyaccompaniedbyaprecariousrightonthepartofthetenant，
toremaintheoccupantofhisallotmentofland，whilehepaystherentdemandedfromhim。Theserentsoriginateinthe
rightsofthesovereign，assoleproprietorofthesoilofhisdominions。Suchrights，wehaveseen，havebeenacknowledged
atsomeperiodbymostnations。InEuropetheyhavedisappearedorbecomenominal；buttheAsiaticsovereignscontinueto
be，astheyhavebeenforalongseriesofages，thedirectlandlordsofthepeasanttenants，whomaintainthemselvesonthe
soiloftheirdominions。Indicationspresentthemselvesoccasionally，whichwouldleadusto
concludethatinportionsofthat
quarteroftheglobe，astateofthingsonceexisted，underwhichtherightstothelandmusthavebeeninadifferentstate
fromthatinwhichweseethem:butitwasinanantiquitysoremote，astobaffleallattemptsatinvestigation。Withinthe
periodofhistoricalmemory，allthegreatempiresofAsiahavebeenoverrunbyforeigners；andontheirrightsasconquerors
theclaimofthepresentsovereignstothesoilrests。China，India，Persia，andAsiaticTurkey，allplacedattheoutwardedge
ofthegreatbasinofcentralAsia，havebeensubduedintheirturnbyirruptionsofitstribes，someofthemmorethanonce。
Chinaseemsevenatthismomenthardlyescapingfromthedangerofanothersubjugation。WherevertheseScythianinvaders
havesettled，theyhaveestablishedadespoticformofgovernment，towhichtheyhavereadilysubmittedthemselves，whiletheywereobligingtheinhabitantsoftheconqueredcountriestosubmittoit。Theuniformityofthepoliticalsystemadoptedbythem，isastrikingpeculiarity；andbecomesmorestriking，whenseenin
contrastwiththefreeconstitutionsestablishedbytheGermanichordes，which，inthewesterndivisionoftheoldworld，took
possessionofcountriesmorewealthyandcivilizedthantheirown。Ithasbeensupposed，thatthedifferencemaybetracedto
theprevioushabitsoftheTartarsaspastoraltribes。ButtheGermanstooconsistedofpastoraltribes，andthedifferenceof
theirinstitutionsmustbesoughtinsomeothercausethanthis。Itmaybefoundperhaps，inagreatmeasure，inthedifferent
characteroftheiroriginalseats。Amidstthefastnessesandmorassesofhisnativewoods，theGerman，whennotactuallyat
war，wasintolerablesecurity；hishabitsofmilitaryobedience，weknow，relaxed，andheenjoyed
thatrudeandindolent
freedom，whichthewarlikebarbarianneverrelinquishedbutfromnecessity。SomeofthetribesoftheAffghansexhibit
remarkableinstancesofthedifferentdegreesofsubmissiontoauthority，producedamongpastoralnationsunderthe
prevalenceofthedifferentfeelingsofsecurity，orofperil。Theyareonlyslowlyandpartiallyabandoningmigratoryhabits:
duringpartoftheyeartheyarestationary，inacountryinwhichtheyfeelsecure；inanotherpartoftheyeartheymoveto
distantpastures。Whilesafeandtranquil，theirinstitutionsare。asfreeasthoseoftheancientGermans，andinmanypointsof
detailresemblethemwithremarkablecloseness。Whentheybegintomove，andtheapproachofdangerandthenecessityof
unitedexertionbegintobefelt，theypassatoncetoadespoticformofgovernment:aKhan，whoseauthority，whiletheyare
stationaryandsafe，isdisclaimed，isatonceinvestedwithsupremepower；andsohelplessdotheyfeelwithouthim，that
whenfromprivateviewshehaswishedtoremainatcourt，oremployhimselfelsewhere，hehasbeenrecalledbytheir
clamor，toreceivetheirsubmission，andtoputhimselfattheirhead。2ButtheTartarsofcentralAsiainhabitvastplains，
traversedineverydirectionbymountedenemies。Thetaskofguardingtheirpropertyandlives，isaconstantcampaign；and
theirhabitsofmilitarysubmissionhavenointervalsofrelaxation:theyareborn，andtheydieinthem。itispossiblethatwhen
theybecamemastersofthefairempiresofexteriorAsia，theyfoundalreadyestablished，insomeinstances，therightofthe
sovereigntothesoil；notasaremoteornominalsuperior，butastheactualanddirectproprietor。Sucharightmayhave
beenarelicofformerconquests，orinsomeremoterinstances，thegrowthofcircumstances，similartothosewhichinduced
thenativesofAfrica，Peru，orNewZealandtoacknowledge，onapplyingthemselvestoagriculture，therightoftheir
sovereignstodisposeoftheterritorywhichthenationoccupied。Howeverthismaybe，itiscertainthattheTartarshave
everywhereeitheradoptedorestablishedapoliticalsystem，whichunitessoreadilywiththeir
nationalhabitsofsubmission
inthepeople，andabsolutepowerinthechiefs:andtheirconquestshaveeitherintroducedorre-establishedit，fromthe
BlackSeatothePacific，fromPekintotheNerbudda。ThroughoutagriculturalAsia，withtheexceptionofRussiathesame
systemprevails。Thereareneithercapitalnorcapitalistsabletoproduce，fromstoresalreadyaccumulated，themaintenance
ofthebulkofthepeople。Thepeasantmusthavelandtotillormuststarve。Thebodyofthenationisthereforeineverycase
dependentuponthegreatsovereignproprietorforthemeansofobtainingfood。Oftheremainderofthepeople，themost
importantpartis，ifpossible，moredependent:theyliveinthecharacter。ofsoldiersorcivilians，onaportionoftherevenue
collectedfromthepeasants，assignedtothembythebountyoftheirchief:intermediateandindependentclassesthereare
none；andgreatandlittleareliterallywhattheydescribethemselvestobe，theslavesofthatmasteronwhosepleasurethe
meansoftheirsubsistencewhollydepend。Theexperienceofmanylongcenturiesofmonotonousoppressionhassufficientlyprovedthetendencyofsuchastateofthings，onceestablished，toperpetuatethedespotismitcreates。AlthoughasimilarsystemprevailsinallthegreatempiresofAsia，itpresentsitselfwithdistinctmodificationsineach；
arisingfromdifferencesintheclimate，soil，andevengovernment；fordespotismitselfhasitsvarieties。Ofthese
modificationsaveryslightsketchmustsufficehere。
SECTIONII。
OnRyotRentsinIndia。Itseemsprobable，thattheancientEgyptians，andtheIndianworshippersoftheBrahminicalidolshadacommonorigin，but
whencetheycame；orinwhatstateofthingstheirpeculiarinstitutionsoriginated，canonlybedimlyconjectured。InIndia，
ryotrentshavesubsistedsincetheinvasionofthepeoplewhomtheBrahminsled，oraccompanied；perhapslonger。ThesacredbooksoftheHindoosfoundtheclaimsofthesovereignstothelandontherightsofconquest。"Byconquest，theearthbecamethepropertyoftheholyParasaRama；bygiftthepropertyoftheSageCasyapa；andwas
committedbyhimtoCahatriyasthemilitarycastforthesakeofprotection，becauseoftheirprotectiveproperty；
successivelyheldbypowerfulconquerors，andnotbysubjectscultivatingthesoil。Butannualpropertyisacquiredby
subjects，onpaymentofannualrevenue，andthekingcannotlawfullygive，sell，ordisposeofthelandtoanotherforthat
year。Butiftheagreementbeinthisform，"youshallenjoyitforyears，"forsomanyyearsasthepropertyisgranted，during
somanyyearsthekingshouldnevergive，sell，ordisposeofittoanother，yetifthesubjectpaynottherevenue，thegrant
beingconditional，isannulledbythebreachofthecondition。Butifnospecialagreementbemade，andanotherpersondesirousofobtainingtheland，stipulateagreaterrevenue，itmaybegrantedtohimonhisapplication。"3Withthespiritandletterofthisoftenquotedlaw，thepracticeofthevarioussovereignsofIndia，nativeandforeign，has