thecustodyanddistributionofthepublicallowanceofcornandprovisions；thecareoftheport，oftheaqueducts，ofthecommonsewers，andofthenavigationandbedoftheTyber；theinspectionofthemarkets，thetheatres，andoftheprivateaswellasthepublicworks。Theirvigilanceinsuredthethreeprincipalobjectsofaregularpolice，safety，plenty，andcleanliness；andasaproofoftheattentionofgovernmenttopreservethesplendorandornamentsofthecapital，aparticularinspectorwasappointedforthestatues；theguardian，asitwere，ofthatinanimatepeople，which，accordingtotheextravagantcomputationofanoldwriter，wasscarcelyinferiorinnumbertothelivinginhabitantsofRome。AboutthirtyyearsafterthefoundationofConstantinople，asimilarmagistratewascreatedinthatrisingmetropolis，forthesameusesandwiththesamepowers。Aperfectequalitywasestablishedbetweenthedignityofthetwomunicipal，andthatofthefourPraetorianpraefects。^109
[Footnote103:Tacit。Annal。vi。11。Euseb。inChron。p。155。
DionCassius，intheorationofMaecenas，l。lvii。p。675，
describestheprerogativesofthepraefectofthecityastheywereestablishedinhisowntime。]
[Footnote104:ThefameofMessallahasbeenscarcelyequaltohismerit。IntheearliestyouthhewasrecommendedbyCicerotothefriendshipofBrutus。HefollowedthestandardoftherepublictillitwasbrokeninthefieldsofPhilippi；hethenacceptedanddeservedthefavorofthemostmoderateoftheconquerors；anduniformlyassertedhisfreedomanddignityinthecourtofAugustus。ThetriumphofMessallawasjustifiedbytheconquestofAquitain。Asanorator，hedisputedthepalmofeloquencewithCicerohimself。Messallacultivatedeverymuse，andwasthepatronofeverymanofgenius。HespenthiseveningsinphilosophicconversationwithHorace；assumedhisplaceattablebetweenDeliaandTibullus；andamusedhisleisurebyencouragingthepoeticaltalentsofyoungOvid。]
[Footnote105:Incivilemessepotestatemcontestans，saysthetranslatorofEusebius。Tacitusexpressesthesameideainotherwords；quasinesciusexercendi。]
[Footnote106:SeeLipsius，ExcursusD。ad1lib。Tacit。Annal。]
[Footnote107:Heineccii。Element。JurisCivilissecundordinemPandecti。p。70。See，likewise，SpanheimdeUsu。Numismatum，tom。ii。dissertat。x。p。119。Intheyear450，Marcianpublishedalaw，thatthreecitizensshouldbeannuallycreatedPraetorsofConstantinoplebythechoiceofthesenate，butwiththeirownconsent。Cod。Justinian。li。i。tit。xxxix。leg。2。]
[Footnote108:Quidquidigiturintraurbemadmittitur，adP。U。
videturpertinere；sedetsiquidintracontesimummilliarium。
UlpianinPandectl。i。tit。xiii。n。1。Heproceedstoenumeratethevariousofficesofthepraefect，who，inthecodeofJustinian，l。i。tit。xxxix。leg。3，isdeclaredtoprecedeandcommandallcitymagistratessineinjuriaacdetrimentohonorisalieni。]
[Footnote109:Besidesourusualguides，wemayobservethatFelixCanteloriushaswrittenaseparatetreatise，DePraefectoUrbis；andthatmanycuriousdetailsconcerningthepoliceofRomeandConstantinoplearecontainedinthefourteenthbookoftheTheodosianCode。]
ChapterXVII:FoundationOfConstantinople。
PartIV。
Thosewho，intheimperialhierarchy，weredistinguishedbythetitleofRespectable，formedanintermediateclassbetweentheillustriouspraefects，andthehonorablemagistratesoftheprovinces。InthisclasstheproconsulsofAsia，Achaia，andAfrica，claimedapreeminence，whichwasyieldedtotheremembranceoftheirancientdignity；andtheappealfromtheirtribunaltothatofthepraefectswasalmosttheonlymarkoftheirdependence。^110ButthecivilgovernmentoftheempirewasdistributedintothirteengreatDioceses，eachofwhichequalledthejustmeasureofapowerfulkingdom。Thefirstofthesedioceseswassubjecttothejurisdictionofthecountoftheeast；andwemayconveysomeideaoftheimportanceandvarietyofhisfunctions，byobserving，thatsixhundredapparitors，whowouldbestyledatpresenteithersecretaries，orclerks，orushers，ormessengers，wereemployedinhisimmediateoffice。
^111TheplaceofAugustalproefectofEgyptwasnolongerfilledbyaRomanknight；butthenamewasretained；andtheextraordinarypowerswhichthesituationofthecountry，andthetemperoftheinhabitants，hadoncemadeindispensable，werestillcontinuedtothegovernor。Theelevenremainingdioceses，ofAsiana，Pontica，andThrace；ofMacedonia，Dacia，andPannonia，orWesternIllyricum；ofItalyandAfrica；ofGaul，Spain，andBritain；weregovernedbytwelvevicarsorvice—proefects，^112whosenamesufficientlyexplainsthenatureanddependenceoftheiroffice。Itmaybeadded，thatthelieutenant—generalsoftheRomanarmies，themilitarycountsanddukes，whowillbehereaftermentioned，wereallowedtherankandtitleofRespectable。
[Footnote110:Eunapiusaffirms，thattheproconsulofAsiawasindependentofthepraefect；whichmust，however，beunderstoodwithsomeallowance。thejurisdictionofthevice—praefecthemostassuredlydisclaimed。Pancirolus，p。161。]
[Footnote111:TheproconsulofAfricahadfourhundredapparitors；andtheyallreceivedlargesalaries，eitherfromthetreasuryortheprovinceSeePancirol。p。26，andCod。Justinian。
l。xii。tit。lvi。lvii。]
[Footnote112:InItalytherewaslikewisetheVicarofRome。Ithasbeenmuchdisputedwhetherhisjurisdictionmeasuredonehundredmilesfromthecity，orwhetheritstretchedoverthetenthousandprovincesofItaly。]
Asthespiritofjealousyandostentationprevailedinthecouncilsoftheemperors，theyproceededwithanxiousdiligencetodividethesubstanceandtomultiplythetitlesofpower。ThevastcountrieswhichtheRomanconquerorshadunitedunderthesamesimpleformofadministration，wereimperceptiblycrumbledintominutefragments；tillatlengththewholeempirewasdistributedintoonehundredandsixteenprovinces，eachofwhichsupportedanexpensiveandsplendidestablishment。Ofthese，threeweregovernedbyproconsuls，thirty—sevenbyconsulars，fivebycorrectors，andseventy—onebypresidents。Theappellationsofthesemagistratesweredifferent；theyrankedinsuccessiveorder，theensignsofandtheirsituation，fromaccidentalcircumstances，mightbemoreorlessagreeableoradvantageous。Buttheywereallexceptingonlythepro—consuls
alikeincludedintheclassofhonorablepersons；andtheywerealikeintrusted，duringthepleasureoftheprince，andundertheauthorityofthepraefectsortheirdeputies，withtheadministrationofjusticeandthefinancesintheirrespectivedistricts。TheponderousvolumesoftheCodesandPandects^113
wouldfurnishamplematerialsforaminuteinquiryintothesystemofprovincialgovernment，asinthespaceofsixcenturiesitwasapprovedbythewisdomoftheRomanstatesmenandlawyers。
Itmaybesufficientforthehistoriantoselecttwosingularandsalutaryprovisions，intendedtorestraintheabuseofauthority。
1。Forthepreservationofpeaceandorder，thegovernorsoftheprovinceswerearmedwiththeswordofjustice。Theyinflictedcorporalpunishments，andtheyexercised，incapitaloffences，thepoweroflifeanddeath。Buttheywerenotauthorizedtoindulgethecondemnedcriminalwiththechoiceofhisownexecution，ortopronounceasentenceofthemildestandmosthonorablekindofexile。Theseprerogativeswerereservedtothepraefects，whoalonecouldimposetheheavyfineoffiftypoundsofgold:theirvicegerentswereconfinedtothetriflingweightofafewounces。^114Thisdistinction，whichseemstograntthelarger，whileitdeniesthesmallerdegreeofauthority，wasfoundedonaveryrationalmotive。Thesmallerdegreewasinfinitelymoreliabletoabuse。Thepassionsofaprovincialmagistratemightfrequentlyprovokehimintoactsofoppression，whichaffectedonlythefreedomorthefortunesofthesubject；
though，fromaprincipleofprudence，perhapsofhumanity，hemightstillbeterrifiedbytheguiltofinnocentblood。Itmaylikewisebeconsidered，thatexile，considerablefines，orthechoiceofaneasydeath，relatemoreparticularlytotherichandthenoble；andthepersonsthemostexposedtotheavariceorresentmentofaprovincialmagistrate，werethusremovedfromhisobscurepersecutiontothemoreaugustandimpartialtribunalofthePraetorianpraefect。2。Asitwasreasonablyapprehendedthattheintegrityofthejudgemightbebiased，ifhisinterestwasconcerned，orhisaffectionswereengaged，thestrictestregulationswereestablished，toexcludeanyperson，withoutthespecialdispensationoftheemperor，fromthegovernmentoftheprovincewherehewasborn；^115andtoprohibitthegovernororhissonfromcontractingmarriagewithanative，oraninhabitant；^116orfrompurchasingslaves，lands，orhouses，withintheextentofhisjurisdiction。^117Notwithstandingtheserigorousprecautions，theemperorConstantine，afterareignoftwenty—fiveyears，stilldeploresthevenalandoppressiveadministrationofjustice，andexpressesthewarmestindignationthattheaudienceofthejudge，hisdespatchofbusiness，hisseasonabledelays，andhisfinalsentence，werepubliclysold，eitherbyhimselforbytheofficersofhiscourt。Thecontinuance，andperhapstheimpunity，ofthesecrimes，isattestedbytherepetitionofimpotentlawsandineffectualmenaces。^118
[Footnote113:AmongtheworksofthecelebratedUlpian，therewasoneintenbooks，concerningtheofficeofaproconsul，whosedutiesinthemostessentialarticleswerethesameasthoseofanordinarygovernorofaprovince。]
[Footnote114:Thepresidents，orconsulars，couldimposeonlytwoounces；thevice—praefects，three；theproconsuls，countoftheeast，andpraefectofEgypt，six。SeeHeinecciiJur。Civil。
tom。i。p。75。Pandect。l。xlviii。tit。xix。n。8。Cod。
Justinian。l。i。tit。liv。leg。4，6。]
[Footnote115:Utnullipatriaesuaeadministratiosinespecialiprincipispermissupermittatur。Cod。Justinian。l。i。tit。xli。
ThislawwasfirstenactedbytheemperorMarcus，aftertherebellionofCassius。Dion。l。lxxi。ThesameregulationisobservedinChina，withequalstrictness，andwithequaleffect。]
[Footnote116:Pandect。l。xxiii。tit。ii。n。38，57，63。]
[Footnote117:Injurecontinetur，nequisinadministrationeconstitutusaliquidcompararet。Cod。Theod。l。viii。tit。xv。
leg。l。ThismaximofcommonlawwasenforcedbyaseriesofedictsseetheremainderofthetitlefromConstantinetoJustin。Fromthisprohibition，whichisextendedtothemeanestofficersofthegovernor，theyexceptonlyclothesandprovisions。Thepurchasewithinfiveyearsmayberecovered；
afterwhichoninformation，itdevolvestothetreasury。]
[Footnote118:Cessentrapacesjamnuncofficialiummanus；
cessent，inquamnamsimonitinoncessaverint，gladiispraecidentur，&c。Cod。Theod。l。i。tit。vii。leg。l。Zenoenactedthatallgovernorsshouldremainintheprovince，toansweranyaccusations，fiftydaysaftertheexpirationoftheirpower。CodJustinian。l。ii。tit。xlix。leg。l。]
Allthecivilmagistratesweredrawnfromtheprofessionofthelaw。ThecelebratedInstitutesofJustinianareaddressedtotheyouthofhisdominions，whohaddevotedthemselvestothestudyofRomanjurisprudence；andthesovereigncondescendstoanimatetheirdiligence，bytheassurancethattheirskillandabilitywouldintimeberewardedbyanadequateshareinthegovernmentoftherepublic。^119Therudimentsofthislucrativescienceweretaughtinalltheconsiderablecitiesoftheeastandwest；butthemostfamousschoolwasthatofBerytus，^120onthecoastofPhoenicia；whichflourishedabovethreecenturiesfromthetimeofAlexanderSeverus，theauthorperhapsofaninstitutionsoadvantageoustohisnativecountry。Afteraregularcourseofeducation，whichlastedfiveyears，thestudentsdispersedthemselvesthroughtheprovinces，insearchoffortuneandhonors；norcouldtheywantaninexhaustiblesupplyofbusinessgreatempire，alreadycorruptedbythemultiplicityoflaws，ofarts，andofvices。ThecourtofthePraetorianpraefectoftheeastcouldalonefurnishemploymentforonehundredandfiftyadvocates，sixty—fourofwhomweredistinguishedbypeculiarprivileges，andtwowereannuallychosen，withasalaryofsixtypoundsofgold，todefendthecausesofthetreasury。Thefirstexperimentwasmadeoftheirjudicialtalents，byappointingthemtoactoccasionallyasassessorstothemagistrates；fromthencetheywereoftenraisedtopresideinthetribunalsbeforewhichtheyhadpleaded。Theyobtainedthegovernmentofaprovince；and，bytheaidofmerit，ofreputation，oroffavor，theyascended，bysuccessivesteps，totheillustriousdignitiesofthestate。^121Inthepracticeofthebar，thesemenhadconsideredreasonastheinstrumentofdispute；theyinterpretedthelawsaccordingtothedictatesofprivateinterestandthesamepernicioushabitsmightstilladheretotheircharactersinthepublicadministrationofthestate。Thehonorofaliberalprofessionhasindeedbeenvindicatedbyancientandmodernadvocates，whohavefilledthemostimportantstations，withpureintegrityandconsummatewisdom:butinthedeclineofRomanjurisprudence，theordinarypromotionoflawyerswaspregnantwithmischiefanddisgrace。
Thenobleart，whichhadoncebeenpreservedasthesacredinheritanceofthepatricians，wasfallenintothehandsoffreedmenandplebeians，^122who，withcunningratherthanwithskill，exercisedasordidandpernicioustrade。Someofthemprocuredadmittanceintofamiliesforthepurposeoffomentingdifferences，ofencouragingsuits，andofpreparingaharvestofgainforthemselvesortheirbrethren。Others，recluseintheirchambers，maintainedthedignityoflegalprofessors，byfurnishingarichclientwithsubtletiestoconfoundtheplainesttruths，andwithargumentstocolorthemostunjustifiablepretensions。Thesplendidandpopularclasswascomposedoftheadvocates，whofilledtheForumwiththesoundoftheirturgidandloquaciousrhetoric。Carelessoffameandofjustice，theyaredescribed，forthemostpart，asignorantandrapaciousguides，whoconductedtheirclientsthroughamazeofexpense，ofdelay，andofdisappointment；fromwhence，afteratediousseriesofyears，theywereatlengthdismissed，whentheirpatienceandfortunewerealmostexhausted。^123
[Footnote119:Summaigiturope，etalacristudiohaslegesnostrasaccipite；etvosmetipsossiceruditosostendite，utspesvospulcherrimafoveat；totolegitimoopereperfecto，posseetiamnostramrempublicaminpartibusejusvobiscredendisgubernari。
Justinianinproem。Institutionum。]
[Footnote120:ThesplendoroftheschoolofBerytus，whichpreservedintheeastthelanguageandjurisprudenceoftheRomans，maybecomputedtohavelastedfromthethirdtothemiddleofthesixthcenturyHeinecc。Jur。Rom。Hist。p。351—356。]
[Footnote121:AsinaformerperiodIhavetracedthecivilandmilitarypromotionofPertinax，IshallhereinsertthecivilhonorsofMalliusTheodorus。1。Hewasdistinguishedbyhiseloquence，whilehepleadedasanadvocateinthecourtofthePraetorianpraefect。2。HegovernedoneoftheprovincesofAfrica，eitheraspresidentorconsular，anddeserved，byhisadministration，thehonorofabrassstatue。3。Hewasappointedvicar，orvice—praefect，ofMacedonia。4。Quaestor。5。Countofthesacredlargesses。6。PraetorianpraefectoftheGauls；whilsthemightyetberepresentedasayoungman。7。Afteraretreat，perhapsadisgraceofmanyyears，whichMalliusconfoundedbysomecriticswiththepoetManilius；seeFabriciusBibliothec。
Latin。Edit。Ernest。tom。i。c。18，p。501employedinthestudyoftheGrecianphilosophyhewasnamedPraetorianpraefectofItaly，intheyear397。8。Whilehestillexercisedthatgreatoffice，hewascreated，ittheyear399，consulfortheWest；andhisname，onaccountoftheinfamyofhiscolleague，theeunuchEutropius，oftenstandsaloneintheFasti。9。Intheyear408，MalliuswasappointedasecondtimePraetorianpraefectofItaly。
EveninthevenalpanegyricofClaudian，wemaydiscoverthemeritofMalliusTheodorus，who，byararefelicity，wastheintimatefriend，bothofSymmachusandofSt。Augustin。SeeTillemont，Hist。desEmp。tom。v。p。1110—1114。]
[Footnote122:MamertinusinPanegyr。Vet。xi。[x。]20。AsteriusapudPhotium，p。1500。]
[Footnote123:ThecuriouspassageofAmmianus，l。xxx。c。4，
inwhichhepaintsthemannersofcontemporarylawyers，affordsastrangemixtureofsoundsense，falserhetoric，andextravagantsatire。GodefroyProlegom。ad。Cod。Theod。c。i。p。185
supportsthehistorianbysimilarcomplaintsandauthenticfacts。
Inthefourthcentury，manycamelsmighthavebeenladenwithlaw—books。EunapiusinVit。Aedesii，p。72。]
III。InthesystemofpolicyintroducedbyAugustus，thegovernors，thoseatleastoftheImperialprovinces，wereinvestedwiththefullpowersofthesovereignhimself。
Ministersofpeaceandwar，thedistributionofrewardsandpunishmentsdependedonthemalone，andtheysuccessivelyappearedontheirtribunalintherobesofcivilmagistracy，andincompletearmorattheheadoftheRomanlegions。^124Theinfluenceoftherevenue，theauthorityoflaw，andthecommandofamilitaryforce，concurredtorendertheirpowersupremeandabsolute；andwhenevertheyweretemptedtoviolatetheirallegiance，theloyalprovincewhichtheyinvolvedintheirrebellionwasscarcelysensibleofanychangeinitspoliticalstate。FromthetimeofCommodustothereignofConstantine，nearonehundredgovernorsmightbeenumerated，who，withvarioussuccess，erectedthestandardofrevolt；andthoughtheinnocentweretoooftensacrificed，theguiltymightbesometimesprevented，bythesuspiciouscrueltyoftheirmaster。^125Tosecurehisthroneandthepublictranquillityfromtheseformidableservants，Constantineresolvedtodividethemilitaryfromtheciviladministration，andtoestablish，asapermanentandprofessionaldistinction，apracticewhichhadbeenadoptedonlyasanoccasionalexpedient。ThesupremejurisdictionexercisedbythePraetorianpraefectsoverthearmiesoftheempire，wastransferredtothetwomasters—generalwhomheinstituted，theoneforthecavalry，theotherfortheinfantry；