andthougheachoftheseillustriousofficerswasmorepeculiarlyresponsibleforthedisciplineofthosetroopswhichwereunderhisimmediateinspection，theybothindifferentlycommandedinthefieldtheseveralbodies，whetherofhorseorfoot，whichwereunitedinthesamearmy。^126Theirnumberwassoondoubledbythedivisionoftheeastandwest；andasseparategeneralsofthesamerankandtitlewereappointedonthefourimportantfrontiersoftheRhine，oftheUpperandtheLowerDanube，andoftheEuphrates，thedefenceoftheRomanempirewasatlengthcommittedtoeightmasters—generalofthecavalryandinfantry。
Undertheirorders，thirty—fivemilitarycommanderswerestationedintheprovinces:threeinBritain，sixinGaul，oneinSpain，oneinItaly，fiveontheUpper，andfourontheLowerDanube；inAsia，eight，threeinEgypt，andfourinAfrica。Thetitlesofcounts，anddukes，^127bywhichtheywereproperlydistinguished，haveobtainedinmodernlanguagessoverydifferentasense，thattheuseofthemmayoccasionsomesurprise。Butitshouldberecollected，thatthesecondofthoseappellationsisonlyacorruptionoftheLatinword，whichwasindiscriminatelyappliedtoanymilitarychief。Alltheseprovincialgeneralswerethereforedukes；butnomorethantenamongthemweredignifiedwiththerankofcountsorcompanions，atitleofhonor，orratheroffavor，whichhadbeenrecentlyinventedinthecourtofConstantine。Agoldbeltwastheensignwhichdistinguishedtheofficeofthecountsanddukes；andbesidestheirpay，theyreceivedaliberalallowancesufficienttomaintainonehundredandninetyservants，andonehundredandfifty—eighthorses。Theywerestrictlyprohibitedfrominterferinginanymatterwhichrelatedtotheadministrationofjusticeortherevenue；butthecommandwhichtheyexercisedoverthetroopsoftheirdepartment，wasindependentoftheauthorityofthemagistrates。AboutthesametimethatConstantinegavealegalsanctiontotheecclesiasticalorder，heinstitutedintheRomanempirethenicebalanceofthecivilandthemilitarypowers。Theemulation，andsometimesthediscord，whichreignedbetweentwoprofessionsofoppositeinterestsandincompatiblemanners，wasproductiveofbeneficialandofperniciousconsequences。Itwasseldomtobeexpectedthatthegeneralandthecivilgovernorofaprovinceshouldeitherconspireforthedisturbance，orshouldunitefortheservice，oftheircountry。
Whiletheonedelayedtooffertheassistancewhichtheotherdisdainedtosolicit，thetroopsveryfrequentlyremainedwithoutordersorwithoutsupplies；thepublicsafetywasbetrayed，andthedefencelesssubjectswereleftexposedtothefuryoftheBarbarians。ThedividedadministrationwhichhadbeenformedbyConstantine，relaxedthevigorofthestate，whileitsecuredthetranquillityofthemonarch。
[Footnote124:SeeaverysplendidexampleinthelifeofAgricola，particularlyc。20，21。ThelieutenantofBritainwasintrustedwiththesamepowerswhichCicero，proconsulofCilicia，hadexercisedinthenameofthesenateandpeople。]
[Footnote125:TheAbbeDubos，whohasexaminedwithaccuracyseeHist。delaMonarchieFrancoise，tom。i。p。41—100，edit。
1742theinstitutionsofAugustusandofConstantine，observes，thatifOthohadbeenputtodeaththedaybeforeheexecutedhisconspiracy，OthowouldnowappearinhistoryasinnocentasCorbulo。]
[Footnote126:Zosimus，l。ii。p。110。BeforetheendofthereignofConstantius，themagistrimilitumwerealreadyincreasedtofour。SeeVelesiusadAmmian。l。xvi。c。7。]
[Footnote127:Thoughthemilitarycountsanddukesarefrequentlymentioned，bothinhistoryandthecodes，wemusthaverecoursetotheNotitiafortheexactknowledgeoftheirnumberandstations。Fortheinstitution，rank，privileges，&c。，ofthecountsingeneralseeCod。Theod。l。vi。tit。xii。—xx。，withthecommentaryofGodefroy。]
ThememoryofConstantinehasbeendeservedlycensuredforanotherinnovation，whichcorruptedmilitarydisciplineandpreparedtheruinoftheempire。ThenineteenyearswhichprecededhisfinalvictoryoverLicinius，hadbeenaperiodoflicenseandintestinewar。TherivalswhocontendedforthepossessionoftheRomanworld，hadwithdrawnthegreatestpartoftheirforcesfromtheguardofthegeneralfrontier；andtheprincipalcitieswhichformedtheboundaryoftheirrespectivedominionswerefilledwithsoldiers，whoconsideredtheircountrymenastheirmostimplacableenemies。Aftertheuseoftheseinternalgarrisonshadceasedwiththecivilwar，theconquerorwantedeitherwisdomorfirmnesstorevivetheseveredisciplineofDiocletian，andtosuppressafatalindulgence，whichhabithadendearedandalmostconfirmedtothemilitaryorder。FromthereignofConstantine，apopularandevenlegaldistinctionwasadmittedbetweenthePalatines^128andtheBorderers；thetroopsofthecourt，astheywereimproperlystyled，andthetroopsofthefrontier。Theformer，elevatedbythesuperiorityoftheirpayandprivileges，werepermitted，exceptintheextraordinaryemergenciesofwar，tooccupytheirtranquilstationsintheheartoftheprovinces。Themostflourishingcitieswereoppressedbytheintolerableweightofquarters。Thesoldiersinsensiblyforgotthevirtuesoftheirprofession，andcontractedonlythevicesofcivillife。Theywereeitherdegradedbytheindustryofmechanictrades，orenervatedbytheluxuryofbathsandtheatres。Theysoonbecamecarelessoftheirmartialexercises，curiousintheirdietandapparel；andwhiletheyinspiredterrortothesubjectsoftheempire，theytrembledatthehostileapproachoftheBarbarians。
^129ThechainoffortificationswhichDiocletianandhiscolleagueshadextendedalongthebanksofthegreatrivers，wasnolongermaintainedwiththesamecare，ordefendedwiththesamevigilance。Thenumberswhichstillremainedunderthenameofthetroopsofthefrontier，mightbesufficientfortheordinarydefence；buttheirspiritwasdegradedbythehumiliatingreflection，thattheywhowereexposedtothehardshipsanddangersofaperpetualwarfare，wererewardedonlywithabouttwothirdsofthepayandemolumentswhichwerelavishedonthetroopsofthecourt。Eventhebandsorlegionsthatwereraisedthenearesttothelevelofthoseunworthyfavorites，wereinsomemeasuredisgracedbythetitleofhonorwhichtheywereallowedtoassume。ItwasinvainthatConstantinerepeatedthemostdreadfulmenacesoffireandswordagainsttheBordererswhoshoulddaredeserttheircolors，toconniveattheinroadsoftheBarbarians，ortoparticipateinthespoil。^130Themischiefswhichflowfrominjudiciouscounselsareseldomremovedbytheapplicationofpartialseverities；andthoughsucceedingprinceslaboredtorestorethestrengthandnumbersofthefrontiergarrisons，theempire，tillthelastmomentofitsdissolution，continuedtolanguishunderthemortalwoundwhichhadbeensorashlyorsoweaklyinflictedbythehandofConstantine。
[Footnote128:Zosimus，lii。p。111。ThedistinctionbetweenthetwoclassesofRomantroops，isverydarklyexpressedinthehistorians，thelaws，andtheNotitia。Consult，however，thecopiousparatitlon，orabstract，whichGodefroyhasdrawnupoftheseventhbook，deReMilitari，oftheTheodosianCode，l。vii。
tit。i。leg。18，l。viii。tit。i。leg。10。]
[Footnote129:Feroxeratinsuosmilesetrapax，ignavusveroinhostesetfractus。Ammian。l。xxii。c。4。Heobserves，thattheyloveddownybedsandhousesofmarble；andthattheircupswereheavierthantheirswords。]
[Footnote130:Cod。Theod。l。vii。tit。i。leg。1，tit。xii。leg。
i。SeeHowell'sHist。oftheWorld，vol。ii。p。19。Thatlearnedhistorian，whoisnotsufficientlyknown，laborstojustifythecharacterandpolicyofConstantine。]
Thesametimidpolicy，ofdividingwhateverisunited，ofreducingwhateveriseminent，ofdreadingeveryactivepower，andofexpectingthatthemostfeeblewillprovethemostobedient，seemstopervadetheinstitutionsofseveralprinces，andparticularlythoseofConstantine。Themartialprideofthelegions，whosevictoriouscampshadsooftenbeenthesceneofrebellion，wasnourishedbythememoryoftheirpastexploits，andtheconsciousnessoftheiractualstrength。Aslongastheymaintainedtheirancientestablishmentofsixthousandmen，theysubsisted，underthereignofDiocletian，eachofthemsingly，avisibleandimportantobjectinthemilitaryhistoryoftheRomanempire。Afewyearsafterwards，thesegiganticbodieswereshrunktoaverydiminutivesize；andwhensevenlegions，withsomeauxiliaries，defendedthecityofAmidaagainstthePersians，thetotalgarrison，withtheinhabitantsofbothsexes，andthepeasantsofthedesertedcountry，didnotexceedthenumberoftwentythousandpersons。^131Fromthisfact，andfromsimilarexamples，thereisreasontobelieve，thattheconstitutionofthelegionarytroops，towhichtheypartlyowedtheirvaloranddiscipline，wasdissolvedbyConstantine；andthatthebandsofRomaninfantry，whichstillassumedthesamenamesandthesamehonors，consistedonlyofonethousandorfifteenhundredmen。^132Theconspiracyofsomanyseparatedetachments，eachofwhichwasawedbythesenseofitsownweakness，couldeasilybechecked；andthesuccessorsofConstantinemightindulgetheirloveofostentation，byissuingtheirorderstoonehundredandthirty—twolegions，inscribedonthemuster—rolloftheirnumerousarmies。Theremainderoftheirtroopswasdistributedintoseveralhundredcohortsofinfantry，andsquadronsofcavalry。Theirarms，andtitles，andensigns，werecalculatedtoinspireterror，andtodisplaythevarietyofnationswhomarchedundertheImperialstandard。Andnotavestigewasleftofthatseveresimplicity，which，intheagesoffreedomandvictory，haddistinguishedthelineofbattleofaRomanarmyfromtheconfusedhostofanAsiaticmonarch。^133A
moreparticularenumeration，drawnfromtheNotitia，mightexercisethediligenceofanantiquary；butthehistorianwillcontenthimselfwithobserving，thatthenumberofpermanentstationsorgarrisonsestablishedonthefrontiersoftheempire，amountedtofivehundredandeighty—three；andthat，underthesuccessorsofConstantine，thecompleteforceofthemilitaryestablishmentwascomputedatsixhundredandforty—fivethousandsoldiers。^134Aneffortsoprodigioussurpassedthewantsofamoreancient，andthefacultiesofalater，period。
[Footnote131:Ammian。l。xix。c。2。Heobserves，c。5，thatthedesperatesalliesoftwoGalliclegionswerelikeahandfulofwaterthrownonagreatconflagration。]
[Footnote132:PancirolusadNotitiam，p。96。Memoiresdel'AcademiedesInscriptions，tom。xxv。p。491。]
[Footnote133:Romanaaciesuniuspropeformaeeratethominumetarmorumgenere。—Regiaaciesvariamagismultisgentibusdissimilitudinearmorumauxiliorumqueerat。T。Liv。l。xxxvii。
c。39，40。Flaminius，evenbeforetheevent，hadcomparedthearmyofAntiochustoasupperinwhichthefleshofonevileanimalwasdiversifiedbytheskillofthecooks。SeetheLifeofFlaminiusinPlutarch。]
[Footnote134:Agathias，l。v。p。157，edit。Louvre。]
Inthevariousstatesofsociety，armiesarerecruitedfromverydifferentmotives。Barbariansareurgedbytheloveofwar；
thecitizensofafreerepublicmaybepromptedbyaprincipleofduty；thesubjects，oratleastthenobles，ofamonarchy，areanimatedbyasentimentofhonor；butthetimidandluxuriousinhabitantsofadecliningempiremustbealluredintotheservicebythehopesofprofit，orcompelledbythedreadofpunishment。TheresourcesoftheRomantreasurywereexhaustedbytheincreaseofpay，bytherepetitionofdonatives，andbytheinventionofnewemolumentandindulgences，which，intheopinionoftheprovincialyouthmightcompensatethehardshipsanddangersofamilitarylife。Yet，althoughthestaturewaslowered，^135althoughslaves，leastbyatacitconnivance，wereindiscriminatelyreceivedintotheranks，theinsurmountabledifficultyofprocuringaregularandadequatesupplyofvolunteers，obligedtheemperorstoadoptmoreeffectualandcoercivemethods。Thelandsbestowedontheveterans，asthefreerewardoftheirvalorwerehenceforwardgrantedunderaconditionwhichcontainthefirstrudimentsofthefeudaltenures；thattheirsons，whosucceededtotheinheritance，shoulddevotethemselvestotheprofessionofarms，assoonastheyattainedtheageofmanhood；andtheircowardlyrefusalwaspunishedbytheloseofhonor，offortune，orevenoflife。^136
Butastheannualgrowthofthesonsoftheveteransboreaverysmallproportiontothedemandsoftheservice，leviesofmenwerefrequentlyrequiredfromtheprovinces，andeveryproprietorwasobligedeithertotakeuparms，ortoprocureasubstitute，ortopurchasehisexemptionbythepaymentofaheavyfine。Thesumofforty—twopiecesofgold，towhichitwasreducedascertainstheexorbitantpriceofvolunteers，andthereluctancewithwhichthegovernmentadmittedofthisalterative。^137Suchwasthehorrorfortheprofessionofasoldier，whichhadaffectedthemindsofthedegenerateRomans，thatmanyoftheyouthofItalyandtheprovinceschosetocutoffthefingersoftheirrighthand，toescapefrombeingpressedintotheservice；
andthisstrangeexpedientwassocommonlypractised，astodeservethesevereanimadversionofthelaws，^138andapeculiarnameintheLatinlanguage。^139
[Footnote135:ValentinianCod。Theodos。l。vii。tit。xiii。leg。
3fixesthestandardatfivefeetseveninches，aboutfivefeetfourinchesandahalf，Englishmeasure。Ithadformerlybeenfivefeetteninches，andinthebestcorps，sixRomanfeet。Sedtunceratampliormultitudeseetpluressequebanturmilitiamarmatam。VegetiusdeReMilitaril。i。c。v。]
[Footnote136:Seethetwotitles，DeVeteranisandDeFiliisVeteranorum，intheseventhbookoftheTheodosianCode。Theageatwhichtheirmilitaryservicewasrequired，variedfromtwenty—fivetosixteen。Ifthesonsoftheveteransappearedwithahorse，theyhadarighttoserveinthecavalry；twohorsesgavethemsomevaluableprivileges]
[Footnote137:Cod。Theod。l。vii。tit。xiii。leg。7。AccordingtothehistorianSocrates，seeGodefroyadloc。，thesameemperorValenssometimesrequiredeightypiecesofgoldforarecruit。Inthefollowinglawitisfaintlyexpressed，thatslavesshallnotbeadmittedinteroptimaslectissimorummilitumturmas。]
[Footnote138:ThepersonandpropertyofaRomanknight，whohadmutilatedhistwosons，weresoldatpublicauctionbyorderofAugustus。Sueton。inAugust。c。27。Themoderationofthatartfulusurperproves，thatthisexampleofseveritywasjustifiedbythespiritofthetimes。AmmianusmakesadistinctionbetweentheeffeminateItaliansandthehardyGauls。
L。xv。c。12。Yetonly15yearsafterwards，Valentinian，inalawaddressedtothepraefectofGaul，isobligedtoenactthatthesecowardlydesertersshallbeburntalive。Cod。Theod。l。
vii。tit。xiii。leg。5。TheirnumbersinIllyricumweresoconsiderable，thattheprovincecomplainedofascarcityofrecruits。Id。leg。10。]
[Footnote139:TheywerecalledMurci。MurcidusisfoundinPlautusandFestus，todenotealazyandcowardlyperson，who，accordingtoArnobiusandAugustin，wasundertheimmediateprotectionofthegoddessMurcia。Fromthisparticularinstanceofcowardice，murcareisusedassynonymoustomutilare，bythewritersofthemiddleLatinity。SeeLinderbrogiusandValesiusadAmmian。Marcellin，l。xv。c。12]
ChapterXVII:FoundationOfConstantinople。
PartV。
TheintroductionofBarbariansintotheRomanarmiesbecameeverydaymoreuniversal，morenecessary，andmorefatal。ThemostdaringoftheScythians，oftheGoths，andoftheGermans，whodelightedinwar，andwhofounditmoreprofitabletodefendthantoravagetheprovinces，wereenrolled，notonlyintheauxiliariesoftheirrespectivenations，butinthelegionsthemselves，andamongthemostdistinguishedofthePalatinetroops。Astheyfreelymingledwiththesubjectsoftheempire，theygraduallylearnedtodespisetheirmanners，andtoimitatetheirarts。TheyabjuredtheimplicitreverencewhichtheprideofRomehadexactedfromtheirignorance，whiletheyacquiredtheknowledgeandpossessionofthoseadvantagesbywhichaloneshesupportedherdeclininggreatness。TheBarbariansoldiers，whodisplayedanymilitarytalents，wereadvanced，withoutexception，tothemostimportantcommands；andthenamesofthetribunes，ofthecountsanddukes，andofthegeneralsthemselves，betrayaforeignorigin，whichtheynolongercondescendedtodisguise。
Theywereoftenintrustedwiththeconductofawaragainsttheircountrymen；andthoughmostofthempreferredthetiesofallegiancetothoseofblood，theydidnotalwaysavoidtheguilt，oratleastthesuspicion，ofholdingatreasonablecorrespondencewiththeenemy，ofinvitinghisinvasion，orofsparinghisretreat。ThecampsandthepalaceofthesonofConstantineweregovernedbythepowerfulfactionoftheFranks，whopreservedthestrictestconnectionwitheachother，andwiththeircountry，andwhoresentedeverypersonalaffrontasanationalindignity。^140WhenthetyrantCaligulawassuspectedofanintentiontoinvestaveryextraordinarycandidatewiththeconsularrobes，thesacrilegiousprofanationwouldhavescarcelyexcitedlessastonishment，if，insteadofahorse，thenoblestchieftainofGermanyorBritainhadbeentheobjectofhischoice。Therevolutionofthreecenturieshadproducedsoremarkableachangeintheprejudicesofthepeople，that，withthepublicapprobation，ConstantineshowedhissuccessorstheexampleofbestowingthehonorsoftheconsulshipontheBarbarians，who，bytheirmeritandservices，haddeservedtoberankedamongthefirstoftheRomans。^141Butasthesehardyveterans，whohadbeeneducatedintheignoranceorcontemptofthelaws，wereincapableofexercisinganyciviloffices，thepowersofthehumanmindwerecontractedbytheirreconcilableseparationoftalentsaswellasofprofessions。TheaccomplishedcitizensoftheGreekandRomanrepublics，whosecharacterscouldadaptthemselvestothebar，thesenate，thecamp，ortheschools，hadlearnedtowrite，tospeak，andtoactwiththesamespirit，andwithequalabilities。
[Footnote140:Malarichus—adhibitisFrancisquorumeatempestateinpalatiomultitudoflorebat，erectiusjamloquebaturtumultuabaturque。Ammian。l。xv。c。5。]
[Footnote141:Barbarosomniumprimus，adusquefascesauxeratettrabeasconsulares。Ammian。l。xx。c。10。EusebiusinVit。
Constantin。l。ivc。7andAureliusVictorseemtoconfirmthetruthofthisassertionyetinthethirty—twoconsularFastiofthereignofConstantinecannotdiscoverthenameofasingleBarbarian。Ishouldthereforeinterprettheliberalityofthatprinceasrelativetotheornamentsratherthantotheoffice，oftheconsulship。]
IV。Besidesthemagistratesandgenerals，whoatadistancefromthecourtdiffusedtheirdelegatedauthorityovertheprovincesandarmies，theemperorconferredtherankofIllustriousonsevenofhismoreimmediateservants，towhosefidelityheintrustedhissafety，orhiscounsels，orhistreasures。1。Theprivateapartmentsofthepalaceweregovernedbyafavoriteeunuch，who，inthelanguageofthatage，wasstyledtheproepositus，orpraefectofthesacredbed—chamber。