Origen，intruth，appearstohavemaintainedamorerigidopinion，Cont。Cels。l。viii。；buthehasoftenrenouncedthisexaggeratedseverity，perhapsnecessarytoproducegreatresults，andbespeaksoftheprofessionofarmsasanhonorableone。l。
　　iv。c。218。—G。
　　OnthesepointsChristianopinion，itshouldseem，wasmuchdividedTertullian，whenhewrotetheDeCor。Mil。，wasevidentlyincliningtomoreasceticopinions，andOrigenwasofthesameclass。SeeNeander，vol。lpartii。p。305，edit。1828。—M。]
　　[Footnote103:AswellaswecanjudgefromthemutilatedrepresentationofOrigen，1。viii。p。423，hisadversary，Celsus，hadurgedhisobjectionwithgreatforceandcandor。]
　　ChapterXV:ProgressOfTheChristianReligion。
　　PartVI。
　　V。Butthehumancharacter，howeveritmaybeexaltedordepressedbyatemporaryenthusiasm，willreturnbydegreestoitsproperandnaturallevel，andwillresumethosepassionsthatseemthemostadaptedtoitspresentcondition。TheprimitiveChristiansweredeadtothebusinessandpleasuresoftheworld；
　　buttheirloveofaction，whichcouldneverbeentirelyextinguished，soonrevived，andfoundanewoccupationinthegovernmentofthechurch。Aseparatesociety，whichattackedtheestablishedreligionoftheempire，wasobligedtoadoptsomeformofinternalpolicy，andtoappointasufficientnumberofministers，intrustednotonlywiththespiritualfunctions，butevenwiththetemporaldirectionoftheChristiancommonwealth。
　　Thesafetyofthatsociety，itshonor，itsaggrandizement，wereproductive，eveninthemostpiousminds，ofaspiritofpatriotism，suchasthefirstoftheRomanshadfeltfortherepublic，andsometimesofasimilarindifference，intheuseofwhatevermeansmightprobablyconducetosodesirableanend。
　　Theambitionofraisingthemselvesortheirfriendstothehonorsandofficesofthechurch，wasdisguisedbythelaudableintentionofdevotingtothepublicbenefitthepowerandconsideration，which，forthatpurposeonly，itbecametheirdutytosolicit。Intheexerciseoftheirfunctions，theywerefrequentlycalledupontodetecttheerrorsofheresyortheartsoffaction，toopposethedesignsofperfidiousbrethren，tostigmatizetheircharacterswithdeservedinfamy，andtoexpelthemfromthebosomofasocietywhosepeaceandhappinesstheyhadattemptedtodisturb。TheecclesiasticalgovernorsoftheChristiansweretaughttounitethewisdomoftheserpentwiththeinnocenceofthedove；butastheformerwasrefined，sothelatterwasinsensiblycorrupted，bythehabitsofgovernment。Ifthechurchaswellasintheworld，thepersonswhowereplacedinanypublicstationrenderedthemselvesconsiderablebytheireloquenceandfirmness，bytheirknowledgeofmankind，andbytheirdexterityinbusiness；andwhiletheyconcealedfromothers，andperhapsfromthemselves，thesecretmotivesoftheirconduct，theytoofrequentlyrelapsedintoalltheturbulentpassionsofactivelife，whichweretincturedwithanadditionaldegreeofbitternessandobstinacyfromtheinfusionofspiritualzeal。
　　Thegovernmentofthechurchhasoftenbeenthesubject，aswellastheprize，ofreligiouscontention。ThehostiledisputantsofRome，ofParis，ofOxford，andofGeneva，havealikestruggledtoreducetheprimitiveandapostolicmodel^104
　　totherespectivestandardsoftheirownpolicy。Thefewwhohavepursuedthisinquirywithmorecandorandimpartiality，areofopinion，^105thattheapostlesdeclinedtheofficeoflegislation，andratherchosetoenduresomepartialscandalsanddivisions，thantoexcludetheChristiansofafutureagefromthelibertyofvaryingtheirformsofecclesiasticalgovernmentaccordingtothechangesoftimesandcircumstances。Theschemeofpolicy，which，undertheirapprobation，wasadoptedfortheuseofthefirstcentury，maybediscoveredfromthepracticeofJerusalem，ofEphesus，orofCorinth。ThesocietieswhichwereinstitutedinthecitiesoftheRomanempire，wereunitedonlybythetiesoffaithandcharity。Independenceandequalityformedthebasisoftheirinternalconstitution。Thewantofdisciplineandhumanlearningwassuppliedbytheoccasionalassistanceoftheprophets，^106whowerecalledtothatfunctionwithoutdistinctionofage，ofsex，orofnaturalabilities，andwho，asoftenastheyfeltthedivineimpulse，pouredforththeeffusionsoftheSpiritintheassemblyofthefaithful。Buttheseextraordinarygiftswerefrequentlyabusedormisappliedbythepropheticteachers。Theydisplayedthematanimproperseason，presumptuouslydisturbedtheserviceoftheassembly，and，bytheirprideormistakenzeal，theyintroduced，particularlyintotheapostolicchurchofCorinth，alongandmelancholytrainofdisorders。^107Astheinstitutionofprophetsbecameuseless，andevenpernicious，theirpowerswerewithdrawn，andtheirofficeabolished。Thepublicfunctionsofreligionweresolelyintrustedtotheestablishedministersofthechurch，thebishopsandthepresbyters；twoappellationswhich，intheirfirstorigin，appeartohavedistinguishedthesameofficeandthesameorderofpersons。ThenameofPresbyterwasexpressiveoftheirage，orratheroftheirgravityandwisdom。ThetitleofBishopdenotedtheirinspectionoverthefaithandmannersoftheChristianswhowerecommittedtotheirpastoralcare。Inproportiontotherespectivenumbersofthefaithful，alargerorsmallernumberoftheseepiscopalpresbytersguidedeachinfantcongregationwithequalauthorityandwithunitedcounsels。^108
　　[Footnote104:ThearistocraticalpartyinFrance，aswellasinEngland，hasstrenuouslymaintainedthedivineoriginofbishops。
　　ButtheCalvinisticalpresbyterswereimpatientofasuperior；
　　andtheRomanPontiffrefusedtoacknowledgeanequal。SeeFraPaolo。]
　　[Footnote105:InthehistoryoftheChristianhierarchy，Ihave，forthemostpart，followedthelearnedandcandidMosheim。]
　　[Footnote106:Fortheprophetsoftheprimitivechurch，seeMosheim，DissertationesadHist。Eccles。pertinentes，tom。ii。p。
　　132—208。]
　　[Footnote*:St。Pauldistinctlyreprovestheintrusionoffemalesintotheprophetsoffice。1Cor。xiv。34，35。1Tim。
　　ii。11。—M。]
　　[Footnote107:SeetheepistlesofSt。Paul，andofClemens，totheCorinthians。
　　Note:Thefirstministersestablishedinthechurchwerethedeacons，appointedatJerusalem，seveninnumber；theywerechargedwiththedistributionofthealms；evenfemaleshadashareinthisemployment。Afterthedeaconscametheeldersorpriests，chargedwiththemaintenanceoforderanddecoruminthecommunity，andtoacteverywhereinitsname。Thebishopswereafterwardschargedtowatchoverthefaithandtheinstructionofthedisciples:theapostlesthemselvesappointedseveralbishops。
　　Tertullian，adv。Marium，c。v。，ClementofAlexandria，andmanyfathersofthesecondandthirdcentury，donotpermitustodoubtthisfact。Theequalityofrankbetweenthesedifferentfunctionariesdidnotpreventtheirfunctionsbeing，evenintheirorigin，distinct；theybecamesubsequentlystillmoreso。
　　SeePlank，GeschichtederChrist。Kirch。Verfassung。，vol。i。p。
　　24。—G。
　　Onthisextremelyobscuresubject，whichhasbeensomuchperplexedbypassionandinterest，itisimpossibletojustifyanyopinionwithoutenteringintolongandcontroversialdetails。
　　Itmustbeadmitted，inoppositiontoPlank，thatintheNewTestament，severalwordsaresometimesindiscriminatelyused。
　　Actsxx。v。17，comp。with28Tit。i。5and7。Philip。i。1。
　　Butitisasclear，thatassoonaswecandiscerntheformofchurchgovernment，ataperiodcloselyborderingupon，ifnotwithin，theapostolicage，itappearswithabishopattheheadofeachcommunity，holdingsomesuperiorityoverthepresbyters。
　　Whetherhewas，asGibbonfromMosheimsupposes，merelyanelectiveheadoftheCollegeofPresbyters，forthiswehave，infact，novalidauthority，orwhetherhisdistinctfunctionswereestablishedonapostolicauthority，isstillcontested。Theuniversalsubmissiontothisepiscopacy，ineverypartoftheChristianworldappearstomestronglytofavorthelatterview。
　　—M。]
　　[Footnote108:Hooker'sEcclesiasticalPolity，l。vii。]
　　Butthemostperfectequalityoffreedomrequiresthedirectinghandofasuperiormagistrate:andtheorderofpublicdeliberationssoonintroducestheofficeofapresident，investedatleastwiththeauthorityofcollectingthesentiments，andofexecutingtheresolutions，oftheassembly。Aregardforthepublictranquillity，whichwouldsofrequentlyhavebeeninterruptedbyannualorbyoccasionalelections，inducedtheprimitiveChristianstoconstituteanhonorableandperpetualmagistracy，andtochooseoneofthewisestandmostholyamongtheirpresbyterianstoexecute，duringhislife，thedutiesoftheirecclesiasticalgovernor。ItwasunderthesecircumstancesthattheloftytitleofBishopbegantoraiseitselfabovethehumbleappellationofPresbyter；andwhilethelatterremainedthemostnaturaldistinctionforthemembersofeveryChristiansenate，theformerwasappropriatedtothedignityofitsnewpresident。^109Theadvantagesofthisepiscopalformofgovernment，whichappearstohavebeenintroducedbeforetheendofthefirstcentury，^110weresoobvious，andsoimportantforthefuturegreatness，aswellasthepresentpeace，ofChristianity，thatitwasadoptedwithoutdelaybyallthesocietieswhichwerealreadyscatteredovertheempire，hadacquiredinaveryearlyperiodthesanctionofantiquity，^111
　　andisstillreveredbythemostpowerfulchurches，bothoftheEastandoftheWest，asaprimitiveandevenasadivineestablishment。^112Itisneedlesstoobserve，thatthepiousandhumblepresbyters，whowerefirstdignifiedwiththeepiscopaltitle，couldnotpossess，andwouldprobablyhaverejected，thepowerandpompwhichnowencirclesthetiaraoftheRomanpontiff，orthemitreofaGermanprelate。Butwemaydefine，inafewwords，thenarrowlimitsoftheiroriginaljurisdiction，whichwaschieflyofaspiritual，thoughinsomeinstancesofatemporalnature。^113Itconsistedintheadministrationofthesacramentsanddisciplineofthechurch，thesuperintendencyofreligiousceremonies，whichimperceptiblyincreasedinnumberandvariety，theconsecrationofecclesiasticalministers，towhomthebishopassignedtheirrespectivefunctions，themanagementofthepublicfund，andthedeterminationofallsuchdifferencesasthefaithfulwereunwillingtoexposebeforethetribunalofanidolatrousjudge。Thesepowers，duringashortperiod，wereexercisedaccordingtotheadviceofthepresbyteralcollege，andwiththeconsentandapprobationoftheassemblyofChristians。
　　Theprimitivebishopswereconsideredonlyasthefirstoftheirequals，andthehonorableservantsofafreepeople。Whenevertheepiscopalchairbecamevacantbydeath，anewpresidentwaschosenamongthepresbytersbythesuffragesofthewholecongregation，everymemberofwhichsupposedhimselfinvestedwithasacredandsacerdotalcharacter。^114
　　[Footnote109:SeeJeromeandTitum，c。i。andEpistol。85，intheBenedictineedition，101，andtheelaborateapologyofBlondel，prosententiaHieronymi。Theancientstate，asitisdescribedbyJerome，ofthebishopandpresbytersofAlexandria，receivesaremarkableconfirmationfromthepatriarchEutychius，Annal。tom。i。p。330，VersPocock；whosetestimonyIknownothowtoreject，inspiteofalltheobjectionsofthelearnedPearsoninhisVindiciaeIgnatianae，parti。c。11。]
　　[Footnote110:SeetheintroductiontotheApocalypse。Bishops，underthenameofangels，werealreadyinstitutedinthesevencitiesofAsia。AndyettheepistleofClemenswhichisprobablyofasancientadatedoesnotleadustodiscoveranytracesofepiscopacyeitheratCorinthorRome。]
　　[Footnote111:NullaEcclesiasineEpiscopo，hasbeenafactaswellasamaximsincethetimeofTertullianandIrenaeus。]
　　[Footnote112:Afterwehavepassedthedifficultiesofthefirstcentury，wefindtheepiscopalgovernmentuniversallyestablished，tillitwasinterruptedbytherepublicangeniusoftheSwissandGermanreformers。]
　　[Footnote113:SeeMosheiminthefirstandsecondcenturies。
　　IgnatiusadSmyrnaeos，c。3，&c。isfondofexaltingtheepiscopaldignity。LeClercHist。Eccles。p。569verybluntlycensureshisconduct，Mosheim，withamorecriticaljudgment，p。
　　161，suspectsthepurityevenofthesmallerepistles。]
　　[Footnote114:NonneetLaicisacerdotessumus?Tertullian，Exhort。adCastitat。c。7。Asthehumanheartisstillthesame，severaloftheobservationswhichMr。HumehasmadeonEnthusiasm，Essays，vol。i。p。76，quartoedit。maybeappliedeventorealinspiration。
　　Note:ThisexpressionwasemployedbytheearlierChristianwritersinthesenseusedbySt。Peter，1Epii。9。Itwasthesanctityandvirtuenotthepowerofpriesthood，inwhichallChristiansweretobeequallydistinguished。—M。]
　　SuchwasthemildandequalconstitutionbywhichtheChristiansweregovernedmorethanahundredyearsafterthedeathoftheapostles。Everysocietyformedwithinitselfaseparateandindependentrepublic；andalthoughthemostdistantoftheselittlestatesmaintainedamutualaswellasfriendlyintercourseoflettersanddeputations，theChristianworldwasnotyetconnectedbyanysupremeauthorityorlegislativeassembly。Asthenumbersofthefaithfulweregraduallymultiplied，theydiscoveredtheadvantagesthatmightresultfromacloserunionoftheirinterestanddesigns。Towardstheendofthesecondcentury，thechurchesofGreeceandAsiaadoptedtheusefulinstitutionsofprovincialsynods，andtheymayjustlybesupposedtohaveborrowedthemodelofarepresentativecouncilfromthecelebratedexamplesoftheirowncountry，theAmphictyons，theAchaeanleague，ortheassembliesoftheIoniancities。Itwassoonestablishedasacustomandasalaw，thatthebishopsoftheindependentchurchesshouldmeetinthecapitaloftheprovinceatthestatedperiodsofspringandautumn。Theirdeliberationswereassistedbytheadviceofafewdistinguishedpresbyters，andmoderatedbythepresenceofalisteningmultitude。^115Theirdecrees，whichwerestyledCanons，regulatedeveryimportantcontroversyoffaithanddiscipline；anditwasnaturaltobelievethataliberaleffusionoftheHolySpiritwouldbepouredontheunitedassemblyofthedelegatesoftheChristianpeople。Theinstitutionofsynodswassowellsuitedtoprivateambition，andtopublicinterest，thatinthespaceofafewyearsitwasreceivedthroughoutthewholeempire。Aregularcorrespondencewasestablishedbetweentheprovincialcouncils，whichmutuallycommunicatedandapprovedtheirrespectiveproceedings；andthecatholicchurchsoonassumedtheform，andacquiredthestrength，ofagreatfoederativerepublic。^116
　　[Footnote*:Thesynodswerenotthefirstmeanstakenbytheinsulatedchurchestoenterintocommunionandtoassumeacorporatecharacter。Thedioceseswerefirstformedbytheunionofseveralcountrychurcheswithachurchinacity:manychurchesinonecityunitingamongthemselves，orjoiningamoreconsiderablechurch，becamemetropolitan。Thedioceseswerenotformedbeforethebeginningofthesecondcentury:beforethattimetheChristianshadnotestablishedsufficientchurchesinthecountrytostandinneedofthatunion。Itistowardsthemiddleofthesamecenturythatwediscoverthefirsttracesofthemetropolitanconstitution。Probablythecountrychurcheswerefoundedingeneralbymissionariesfromthoseinthecity，andwouldpreserveanaturalconnectionwiththeparentchurch。
　　—M。
　　Theprovincialsynodsdidnotcommencetilltowardsthemiddleofthethirdcentury，andwerenotthefirstsynods。
　　Historygivesusdistinctnotionsofthesynods，heldtowardstheendofthesecondcentury，atEphesusatJerusalem，atPontus，andatRome，toputanendtothedisputeswhichhadarisenbetweentheLatinandAsiaticchurchesaboutthecelebrationofEaster。Butthesesynodswerenotsubjecttoanyregularformorperiodicalreturn；thisregularitywasfirstestablishedwiththeprovincialsynods，whichwereformedbyaunionofthebishopsofadistrict，subjecttoametropolitan。Plank，p。90。GeschichtederChrist。Kirch。Verfassung—G]
　　[Footnote115:ActaConcil。Carthag。apudCyprian。edit。Fell，p。158。Thiscouncilwascomposedofeighty—sevenbishopsfromtheprovincesofMauritania，Numidia，andAfrica；somepresbytersanddeaconsassistedattheassembly；praesenteplebismaximaparte。]
　　[Footnote116:AgunturpraetereaperGraeciasillas，certisinlocisconcilia，&cTertulliandeJejuniis，c。13。TheAfricanmentionsitasarecentandforeigninstitution。ThecoalitionoftheChristianchurchesisveryablyexplainedbyMosheim，p。
　　164170。]
　　Asthelegislativeauthorityoftheparticularchurcheswasinsensiblysupersededbytheuseofcouncils，thebishopsobtainedbytheirallianceamuchlargershareofexecutiveandarbitrarypower；andassoonastheywereconnectedbyasenseoftheircommoninterest，theywereenabledtoattackwithunitedvigor，theoriginalrightsoftheirclergyandpeople。Theprelatesofthethirdcenturyimperceptiblychangedthelanguageofexhortationintothatofcommand，scatteredtheseedsoffutureusurpations，andsupplied，byscriptureallegoriesanddeclamatoryrhetoric，theirdeficiencyofforceandofreason。