Inallcasestheytookcaretorepresentgovernmentasathingmadeupofmysteries,whichonlythemselvesunderstood;andtheyhidfromtheunderstandingofthenationtheonlythingthatwasbeneficialtoknow,namely,Thatgovernmentisnothingmorethananationalassociationaddingontheprinciplesofsociety。
　　Havingthusendeavouredtoshowthatthesocialandcivilisedstateofmaniscapableofperformingwithinitselfalmosteverythingnecessarytoitsprotectionandgovernment,itwillbeproper,ontheotherhand,totakeareviewofthepresentoldgovernments,andexaminewhethertheirprinciplesandpracticearecorrespondentthereto。
　　CHAPTERII
　　OftheOriginofthePresentOldGovernmentsItisimpossiblethatsuchgovernmentsashavehithertoexistedintheworld,couldhavecommencedbyanyothermeansthanatotalviolationofeveryprinciplesacredandmoral。Theobscurityinwhichtheoriginofallthepresentoldgovernmentsisburied,impliestheiniquityanddisgracewithwhichtheybegan。TheoriginofthepresentgovernmentofAmericaandFrancewilleverberemembered,becauseitishonourabletorecordit;butwithrespecttotherest,evenFlatteryhasconsignedthemtothetomboftime,withoutaninscription。
　　Itcouldhavebeennodifficultthingintheearlyandsolitaryagesoftheworld,whilethechiefemploymentofmenwasthatofattendingflocksandherds,forabandittiofruffianstooverrunacountry,andlayitundercontributions。Theirpowerbeingthusestablished,thechiefofthebandcontrivedtolosethenameofRobberinthatofMonarch;andhencetheoriginofMonarchyandKings。
　　TheoriginoftheGovernmentofEngland,sofarasrelatestowhatiscalleditslineofmonarchy,beingoneofthelatest,isperhapsthebestrecorded。ThehatredwhichtheNormaninvasionandtyrannybegat,musthavebeendeeplyrootedinthenation,tohaveoutlivedthecontrivancetoobliterateit。Thoughnotacourtierwilltalkofthecurfew—bell,notavillageinEnglandhasforgottenit。
　　Thosebandsofrobbershavingparcelledouttheworld,anddivideditintodominions,began,asisnaturallythecase,toquarrelwitheachother。Whatatfirstwasobtainedbyviolencewasconsideredbyothersaslawfultobetaken,andasecondplunderersucceededthefirst。Theyalternatelyinvadedthedominionswhicheachhadassignedtohimself,andthebrutalitywithwhichtheytreatedeachotherexplainstheoriginalcharacterofmonarchy。
　　Itwasruffiantorturingruffian。Theconquerorconsideredtheconquered,notashisprisoner,buthisproperty。Heledhimintriumphrattlinginchains,anddoomedhim,atpleasure,toslaveryordeath。Astimeobliteratedthehistoryoftheirbeginning,theirsuccessorsassumednewappearances,tocutofftheentailoftheirdisgrace,buttheirprinciplesandobjectsremainedthesame。Whatatfirstwasplunder,assumedthesofternameofrevenue;andthepoweroriginallyusurped,theyaffectedtoinherit。
　　Fromsuchbeginningofgovernments,whatcouldbeexpectedbutacontinuedsystemofwarandextortion？Ithasestablisheditselfintoatrade。Theviceisnotpeculiartoonemorethantoanother,butisthecommonprincipleofall。Theredoesnotexistwithinsuchgovernmentssufficientstaminawhereontoengraftreformation;
　　andtheshortestandmosteffectualremedyistobeginanewonthegroundofthenation。
　　Whatscenesofhorror,whatperfectionofiniquity,presentthemselvesincontemplatingthecharacterandreviewingthehistoryofsuchgovernments！Ifwewoulddelineatehumannaturewithabasenessofheartandhypocrisyofcountenancethatreflectionwouldshudderatandhumanitydisown,itiskings,courtsandcabinetsthatmustsitfortheportrait。Man,naturallyasheis,withallhisfaultsabouthim,isnotuptothecharacter。
　　Canwepossiblysupposethatifgovernmentshadoriginatedinarightprinciple,andhadnotaninterestinpursuingawrongone,theworldcouldhavebeeninthewretchedandquarrelsomeconditionwehaveseenit？Whatinducementhasthefarmer,whilefollowingtheplough,tolayasidehispeacefulpursuit,andgotowarwiththefarmerofanothercountry？orwhatinducementhasthemanufacturer？Whatisdominiontothem,ortoanyclassofmeninanation？Doesitaddanacretoanyman'sestate,orraiseitsvalue？Arenotconquestanddefeateachofthesameprice,andtaxesthenever—failingconsequence？—
　　Thoughthisreasoningmaybegoodtoanation,itisnotsotoagovernment。
　　WaristhePharo—tableofgovernments,andnationsthedupesofthegame。
　　Ifthereisanythingtowonderatinthismiserablesceneofgovernmentsmorethanmightbeexpected,itistheprogresswhichthepeacefulartsofagriculture,manufactureandcommercehavemadebeneathsuchalongaccumulatingloadofdiscouragementandoppression。Itservestoshowthatinstinctinanimalsdoesnotactwithstrongerimpulsethantheprinciplesofsocietyandcivilisationoperateinman。Underalldiscouragements,hepursueshisobject,andyieldstonothingbutimpossibilities。
　　CHAPTERIII
　　OftheOldandNewSystemsofGovernmentNothingcanappearmorecontradictorythantheprinciplesonwhichtheoldgovernmentsbegan,andtheconditiontowhichsociety,civilisationandcommercearecapableofcarryingmankind。
　　Government,ontheoldsystem,isanassumptionofpower,fortheaggrandisementofitself;onthenew,adelegationofpowerforthecommonbenefitofsociety。Theformersupportsitselfbykeepingupasystemofwar;thelatterpromotesasystemofpeace,asthetruemeansofenrichinganation。
　　Theoneencouragesnationalprejudices;theotherpromotesuniversalsociety,asthemeansofuniversalcommerce。Theonemeasuresitsprosperity,bythequantityofrevenueitextorts;theotherprovesitsexcellence,bythesmallquantityoftaxesitrequires。
　　Mr。Burkehastalkedofoldandnewwhigs。Ifhecanamusehimselfwithchildishnamesanddistinctions,Ishallnotinterrupthispleasure。Itisnottohim,buttotheAbbeSieyes,thatIaddressthischapter。Iamalreadyengagedtothelattergentlemantodiscussthesubjectofmonarchicalgovernment;andasitnaturallyoccursincomparingtheoldandnewsystems,Imakethistheopportunityofpresentingtohimmyobservations。IshalloccasionallytakeMr。Burkeinmyway。
　　Thoughitmightbeprovedthatthesystemofgovernmentnowcalledthenew,isthemostancientinprincipleofallthathaveexisted,beingfoundedontheoriginal,inherentRightsofMan:yet,astyrannyandtheswordhavesuspendedtheexerciseofthoserightsformanycenturiespast,itservesbetterthepurposeofdistinctiontocallitthenew,thantoclaimtherightofcallingittheold。
　　Thefirstgeneraldistinctionbetweenthosetwosystems,is,thattheonenowcalledtheoldishereditary,eitherinwholeorinpart;andthenewisentirelyrepresentative。Itrejectsallhereditarygovernment:
　　First,Asbeinganimpositiononmankind。
　　Secondly,Asinadequatetothepurposesforwhichgovernmentisnecessary。
　　Withrespecttothefirstoftheseheads—Itcannotbeprovedbywhatrighthereditarygovernmentcouldbegin;neitherdoesthereexistwithinthecompassofmortalpowerarighttoestablishit。Manhasnoauthorityoverposterityinmattersofpersonalright;and,therefore,noman,orbodyofmen,had,orcanhave,arighttosetuphereditarygovernment。Wereevenourselvestocomeagainintoexistence,insteadofbeingsucceededbyposterity,wehavenotnowtherightoftakingfromourselvestherightswhichwouldthenbeours。Onwhatground,then,dowepretendtotakethemfromothers？
　　Allhereditarygovernmentisinitsnaturetyranny。Anheritablecrown,oranheritablethrone,orbywhatotherfancifulnamesuchthingsmaybecalled,havenoothersignificantexplanationthanthatmankindareheritableproperty。Toinheritagovernment,istoinheritthepeople,asiftheywereflocksandherds。
　　Withrespecttothesecondhead,thatofbeinginadequatetothepurposesforwhichgovernmentisnecessary,wehaveonlytoconsiderwhatgovernmentessentiallyis,andcompareitwiththecircumstancestowhichhereditarysuccessionissubject。
　　Governmentoughttobeathingalwaysinfullmaturity。Itoughttobesoconstructedastobesuperiortoalltheaccidentstowhichindividualmanissubject;and,therefore,hereditarysuccession,bybeingsubjecttothemall,isthemostirregularandimperfectofallthesystemsofgovernment。
　　WehaveheardtheRightsofMancalledalevellingsystem;buttheonlysystemtowhichthewordlevellingistrulyapplicable,isthehereditarymonarchicalsystem。Itisasystemofmentallevelling。
　　Itindiscriminatelyadmitseveryspeciesofcharactertothesameauthority。Viceandvirtue,ignoranceandwisdom,inshort,everyqualitygoodorbad,isputonthesamelevel。Kingssucceedeachother,notasrationals,butasanimals。Itsignifiesnotwhattheirmentalormoralcharactersare。Canwethenbesurprisedattheabjectstateofthehumanmindinmonarchicalcountries,whenthegovernmentitselfisformedonsuchanabjectlevellingsystem？—Ithasnofixedcharacter。To—dayitisonething;to—morrowitissomethingelse。Itchangeswiththetemperofeverysucceedingindividual,andissubjecttoallthevarietiesofeach。Itisgovernmentthroughthemediumofpassionsandaccidents。Itappearsunderallthevariouscharactersofchildhood,decrepitude,dotage,athingatnurse,inleading—strings,orincrutches。Itreversesthewholesomeorderofnature。Itoccasionallyputschildrenovermen,andtheconceitsofnonageoverwisdomandexperience。Inshort,wecannotconceiveamoreridiculousfigureofgovernment,thanhereditarysuccession,inallitscases,presents。
　　Coulditbemadeadecreeinnature,oranedictregisteredinheaven,andmancouldknowit,thatvirtueandwisdomshouldinvariablyappertaintohereditarysuccession,theobjectiontoitwouldberemoved;butwhenweseethatnatureactsasifshedisownedandsportedwiththehereditarysystem;thatthementalcharacterofsuccessors,inallcountries,isbelowtheaverageofhumanunderstanding;thatoneisatyrant,anotheranidiot,athirdinsane,andsomeallthreetogether,itisimpossibletoattachconfidencetoit,whenreasoninmanhaspowertoact。
　　ItisnottotheAbbeSieyesthatIneedapplythisreasoning;hehasalreadysavedmethattroublebygivinghisownopinionuponthecase。"Ifitbeasked,"sayshe,"whatismyopinionwithrespecttohereditaryright,Ianswerwithouthesitation,Thatingoodtheory,anhereditarytransmissionofanypowerofoffice,canneveraccordwiththelawsofatruerepresentation。
　　Hereditaryshipis,inthissense,asmuchanattaintuponprinciple,asanoutrageuponsociety。Butletus,"continueshe,"refertothehistoryofallelectivemonarchiesandprincipalities:isthereoneinwhichtheelectivemodeisnotworsethanthehereditarysuccession？"
　　Astodebatingonwhichistheworstofthetwo,itisadmittingbothtobebad;andhereinweareagreed。ThepreferencewhichtheAbbehasgiven,isacondemnationofthethingthatheprefers。
　　Suchamodeofreasoningonsuchasubjectisinadmissible,becauseitfinallyamountstoanaccusationuponProvidence,asifshehadlefttomannootherchoicewithrespecttogovernmentthanbetweentwoevils,thebestofwhichheadmitstobe"anattaintuponprinciple,andanoutrageuponsociety。"
　　Passingover,forthepresent,alltheevilsandmischiefswhichmonarchyhasoccasionedintheworld,nothingcanmoreeffectuallyproveitsuselessnessinastateofcivilgovernment,thanmakingithereditary。Wouldwemakeanyofficehereditarythatrequiredwisdomandabilitiestofillit？Andwherewisdomandabilitiesarenotnecessary,suchanoffice,whateveritmaybe,issuperfluousorinsignificant。
　　Hereditarysuccessionisaburlesqueuponmonarchy。Itputsitinthemostridiculouslight,bypresentingitasanofficewhichanychildoridiotmayfill。Itrequiressometalentstobeacommonmechanic;buttobeakingrequiresonlytheanimalfigureofman—asortofbreathingautomaton。Thissortofsuperstitionmaylastafewyearsmore,butitcannotlongresisttheawakenedreasonandinterestofman。
　　AstoMr。Burke,heisasticklerformonarchy,notaltogetherasapensioner,ifheisone,whichIbelieve,butasapoliticalman。Hehastakenupacontemptibleopinionofmankind,who,intheirturn,aretakingupthesameofhim。Heconsidersthemasaherdofbeingsthatmustbegovernedbyfraud,effigy,andshow;
　　andanidolwouldbeasgoodafigureofmonarchywithhim,asaman。Iwill,however,dohimthejusticetosaythat,withrespecttoAmerica,hehasbeenverycomplimentary。Healwayscontended,atleastinmyhearing,thatthepeopleofAmericaweremoreenlightenedthanthoseofEngland,orofanycountryinEurope;andthatthereforetheimpositionofshowwasnotnecessaryintheirgovernments。
　　Thoughthecomparisonbetweenhereditaryandelectivemonarchy,whichtheAbbehasmade,isunnecessarytothecase,becausetherepresentativesystemrejectsboth:yet,wereItomakethecomparison,Ishoulddecidecontrarytowhathehasdone。
　　Thecivilwarswhichhaveoriginatedfromcontestedhereditaryclaims,aremorenumerous,andhavebeenmoredreadful,andoflongercontinuance,thanthosewhichhavebeenoccasionedbyelection。
　　AllthecivilwarsinFrancearosefromthehereditarysystem;theywereeitherproducedbyhereditaryclaims,orbytheimperfectionofthehereditaryform,whichadmitsofregenciesormonarchyatnurse。WithrespecttoEngland,itshistoryisfullofthesamemisfortunes。ThecontestsforsuccessionbetweenthehousesofYorkandLancasterlastedawholecentury;andothersofasimilarnaturehaverenewedthemselvessincethatperiod。Thoseof1715and1745wereofthesamekind。ThesuccessionwarforthecrownofSpainembroiledalmosthalfEurope。ThedisturbancesofHollandaregeneratedfromthehereditaryshipoftheStadtholder。A
　　governmentcallingitselffree,withanhereditaryoffice,islikeathornintheflesh,thatproducesafermentationwhichendeavourstodischargeit。
　　ButImightgofurther,andplacealsoforeignwars,ofwhateverkind,tothesamecause。Itisbyaddingtheevilofhereditarysuccessiontothatofmonarchy,thatapermanentfamilyinterestiscreated,whoseconstantobjectsaredominionandrevenue。
　　Poland,thoughanelectivemonarchy,hashadfewerwarsthanthosewhicharehereditary;anditistheonlygovernmentthathasmadeavoluntaryessay,thoughbutasmallone,toreformtheconditionofthecountry。
　　Havingthusglancedatafewofthedefectsoftheold,orhereditarysystemsofgovernment,letuscompareitwiththenew,orrepresentativesystem。
　　Therepresentativesystemtakessocietyandcivilisationforitsbasis;
　　nature,reason,andexperience,foritsguide。
　　Experience,inallages,andinallcountries,hasdemonstratedthatitisimpossibletocontrolNatureinherdistributionofmentalpowers。Shegivesthemasshepleases。Whateveristherulebywhichshe,apparentlytous,scattersthemamongmankind,thatruleremainsasecrettoman。Itwouldbeasridiculoustoattempttofixthehereditaryshipofhumanbeauty,asofwisdom。
　　Whateverwisdomconstituentlyis,itislikeaseedlessplant;itmayberearedwhenitappears,butitcannotbevoluntarilyproduced。Thereisalwaysasufficiencysomewhereinthegeneralmassofsocietyforallpurposes;butwithrespecttothepartsofsociety,itiscontinuallychangingitsplace。Itrisesinoneto—day,inanotherto—morrow,andhasmostprobablyvisitedinrotationeveryfamilyoftheearth,andagainwithdrawn。
　　Asthisisintheorderofnature,theorderofgovernmentmustnecessarilyfollowit,orgovernmentwill,asweseeitdoes,degenerateintoignorance。Thehereditarysystem,therefore,isasrepugnanttohumanwisdomastohumanrights;andisasabsurdasitisunjust。
　　Astherepublicoflettersbringsforwardthebestliteraryproductions,bygivingtogeniusafairanduniversalchance;sotherepresentativesystemofgovernmentiscalculatedtoproducethewisestlaws,bycollectingwisdomfromwhereitcanbefound。IsmiletomyselfwhenIcontemplatetheridiculousinsignificanceintowhichliteratureandallthescienceswouldsink,weretheymadehereditary;andIcarrythesameideaintogovernments。
　　Anhereditarygovernorisasinconsistentasanhereditaryauthor。IknownotwhetherHomerorEuclidhadsons;butIwillventureanopinionthatiftheyhad,andhadlefttheirworksunfinished,thosesonscouldnothavecompletedthem。
　　Doweneedastrongerevidenceoftheabsurdityofhereditarygovernmentthanisseeninthedescendantsofthosemen,inanylineoflife,whooncewerefamous？Istherescarcelyaninstanceinwhichthereisnotatotalreverseofthecharacter？Itappearsasifthetideofmentalfacultiesflowedasfarasitcouldincertainchannels,andthenforsookitscourse,andaroseinothers。Howirrationalthenisthehereditarysystem,whichestablisheschannelsofpower,incompanywithwhichwisdomrefusestoflow！Bycontinuingthisabsurdity,manisperpetuallyincontradictionwithhimself;heaccepts,foraking,orachiefmagistrate,oralegislator,apersonwhomhewouldnotelectforaconstable。
　　Itappearstogeneralobservation,thatrevolutionscreategeniusandtalents;butthoseeventsdonomorethanbringthemforward。Thereisexistinginman,amassofsenselyinginadormantstate,andwhich,unlesssomethingexcitesittoaction,willdescendwithhim,inthatcondition,tothegrave。Asitistotheadvantageofsocietythatthewholeofitsfacultiesshouldbeemployed,theconstructionofgovernmentoughttobesuchastobringforward,byaquietandregularoperation,allthatextentofcapacitywhichneverfailstoappearinrevolutions。
　　Thiscannottakeplaceintheinsipidstateofhereditarygovernment,notonlybecauseitprevents,butbecauseitoperatestobenumb。Whenthemindofanationisboweddownbyanypoliticalsuperstitioninitsgovernment,suchashereditarysuccessionis,itlosesaconsiderableportionofitspowersonallothersubjectsandobjects。Hereditarysuccessionrequiresthesameobediencetoignorance,astowisdom;andwhenoncethemindcanbringitselftopaythisindiscriminatereverence,itdescendsbelowthestatureofmentalmanhood。Itisfittobegreatonlyinlittlethings。Itactsatreacheryuponitself,andsuffocatesthesensationsthaturgethedetection。
　　Thoughtheancientgovernmentspresenttousamiserablepictureoftheconditionofman,thereisonewhichaboveallothersexemptsitselffromthegeneraldescription。ImeanthedemocracyoftheAthenians。Weseemoretoadmire,andlesstocondemn,inthatgreat,extraordinarypeople,thaninanythingwhichhistoryaffords。
　　Mr。Burkeissolittleacquaintedwithconstituentprinciplesofgovernment,thatheconfoundsdemocracyandrepresentationtogether。Representationwasathingunknownintheancientdemocracies。
　　Inthosethemassofthepeoplemetandenactedlaws（grammaticallyspeaking）inthefirstperson。Simpledemocracywasnootherthanthecommonhalloftheancients。Itsignifiestheform,aswellasthepublicprincipleofthegovernment。
　　Asthosedemocraciesincreasedinpopulation,andtheterritoryextended,thesimpledemocraticalformbecameunwieldyandimpracticable;andasthesystemofrepresentationwasnotknown,theconsequencewas,theyeitherdegeneratedconvulsivelyintomonarchies,orbecameabsorbedintosuchasthenexisted。Hadthesystemofrepresentationbeenthenunderstood,asitnowis,thereisnoreasontobelievethatthoseformsofgovernment,nowcalledmonarchicaloraristocratical,wouldeverhavetakenplace。Itwasthewantofsomemethodtoconsolidatethepartsofsociety,afteritbecametoopopulous,andtooextensiveforthesimpledemocraticalform,andalsothelaxandsolitaryconditionofshepherdsandherdsmeninotherpartsoftheworld,thataffordedopportunitiestothoseunnaturalmodesofgovernmenttobegin。
　　Asitisnecessarytoclearawaytherubbishoferrors,intowhichthesubjectofgovernmenthasbeenthrown,Iwillproceedtoremarkonsomeothers。
　　Ithasalwaysbeenthepoliticalcraftofcourtiersandcourt—governments,toabusesomethingwhichtheycalledrepublicanism;
　　butwhatrepublicanismwas,oris,theyneverattempttoexplain。letusexaminealittleintothiscase。
　　Theonlyformsofgovernmentarethedemocratical,thearistocratical,themonarchical,andwhatisnowcalledtherepresentative。
　　Whatiscalledarepublicisnotanyparticularformofgovernment。
　　Itiswhollycharacteristicalofthepurport,matterorobjectforwhichgovernmentoughttobeinstituted,andonwhichitistobeemployed,Res—Publica,thepublicaffairs,orthepublicgood;or,literallytranslated,thepublicthing。Itisawordofagoodoriginal,referringtowhatoughttobethecharacterandbusinessofgovernment;andinthissenseitisnaturallyopposedtothewordmonarchy,whichhasabaseoriginalsignification。
　　Itmeansarbitrarypowerinanindividualperson;intheexerciseofwhich,himself,andnottheres—publica,istheobject。
　　EverygovernmentthatdoesnotactontheprincipleofaRepublic,orinotherwords,thatdoesnotmaketheres—publicaitswholeandsoleobject,isnotagoodgovernment。Republicangovernmentisnootherthangovernmentestablishedandconductedfortheinterestofthepublic,aswellindividuallyascollectively。
　　Itisnotnecessarilyconnectedwithanyparticularform,butitmostnaturallyassociateswiththerepresentativeform,asbeingbestcalculatedtosecuretheendforwhichanationisattheexpenseofsupportingit。
　　Variousformsofgovernmenthaveaffectedtostylethemselvesarepublic。
　　Polandcallsitselfarepublic,whichisanhereditaryaristocracy,withwhatiscalledanelectivemonarchy。Hollandcallsitselfarepublic,whichischieflyaristocratical,withanhereditarystadtholdership。ButthegovernmentofAmerica,whichiswhollyonthesystemofrepresentation,istheonlyrealRepublic,incharacterandinpractice,thatnowexists。Itsgovernmenthasnootherobjectthanthepublicbusinessofthenation,andthereforeitisproperlyarepublic;andtheAmericanshavetakencarethatthis,andnoother,shallalwaysbetheobjectoftheirgovernment,bytheirrejectingeverythinghereditary,andestablishinggovernmentsonthesystemofrepresentationonly。Thosewhohavesaidthatarepublicisnotaformofgovernmentcalculatedforcountriesofgreatextent,mistook,inthefirstplace,thebusinessofagovernment,foraformofgovernment;fortheres—publicaequallyappertainstoeveryextentofterritoryandpopulation。And,inthesecondplace,iftheymeantanythingwithrespecttoform,itwasthesimpledemocraticalform,suchaswasthemodeofgovernmentintheancientdemocracies,inwhichtherewasnorepresentation。Thecase,therefore,isnot,thatarepubliccannotbeextensive,butthatitcannotbeextensiveonthesimpledemocraticalform;andthequestionnaturallypresentsitself,WhatisthebestformofgovernmentforconductingtheRes—Publica,orthePublicBusinessofanation,afteritbecomestooextensiveandpopulousforthesimpledemocraticalform？Itcannotbemonarchy,becausemonarchyissubjecttoanobjectionofthesameamounttowhichthesimpledemocraticalformwassubject。