Thedutyofmanisnotawildernessofturnpikegates,throughwhichheistopassbyticketsfromonetotheother。Itisplainandsimple,andconsistsbutoftwopoints。HisdutytoGod,whicheverymanmustfeel;
　　andwithrespecttohisneighbor,todoashewouldbedoneby。Ifthosetowhompowerisdelegateddowell,theywillberespected:ifnot,theywillbedespised;andwithregardtothosetowhomnopowerisdelegated,butwhoassumeit,therationalworldcanknownothingofthem。
　　Hithertowehavespokenonly（andthatbutinpart）ofthenaturalrightsofman。Wehavenowtoconsiderthecivilrightsofman,andtoshowhowtheoneoriginatesfromtheother。Mandidnotenterintosocietytobecomeworsethanhewasbefore,nortohavefewerrightsthanhehadbefore,buttohavethoserightsbettersecured。Hisnaturalrightsarethefoundationofallhiscivilrights。Butinordertopursuethisdistinctionwithmoreprecision,itwillbenecessarytomarkthedifferentqualitiesofnaturalandcivilrights。
　　Afewwordswillexplainthis。Naturalrightsarethosewhichappertaintomaninrightofhisexistence。Ofthiskindarealltheintellectualrights,orrightsofthemind,andalsoallthoserightsofactingasanindividualforhisowncomfortandhappiness,whicharenotinjurioustothenaturalrightsofothers。Civilrightsarethosewhichappertaintomaninrightofhisbeingamemberofsociety。Everycivilrighthasforitsfoundationsomenaturalrightpre—existingintheindividual,buttotheenjoymentofwhichhisindividualpowerisnot,inallcases,sufficientlycompetent。Ofthiskindareallthosewhichrelatetosecurityandprotection。
　　Fromthisshortreviewitwillbeeasytodistinguishbetweenthatclassofnaturalrightswhichmanretainsafterenteringintosocietyandthosewhichhethrowsintothecommonstockasamemberofsociety。
　　ThenaturalrightswhichheretainsareallthoseinwhichthePowertoexecuteisasperfectintheindividualastherightitself。Amongthisclass,asisbeforementioned,arealltheintellectualrights,orrightsofthemind;consequentlyreligionisoneofthoserights。Thenaturalrightswhicharenotretained,areallthoseinwhich,thoughtherightisperfectintheindividual,thepowertoexecutethemisdefective。Theyanswernothispurpose。Aman,bynaturalright,hasarighttojudgeinhisowncause;andsofarastherightofthemindisconcerned,heneversurrendersit。Butwhatavailethithimtojudge,ifhehasnotpowertoredress？Hethereforedepositsthisrightinthecommonstockofsociety,andtakestheannofsociety,ofwhichheisapart,inpreferenceandinadditiontohisown。Societygrantshimnothing。Everymanisaproprietorinsociety,anddrawsonthecapitalasamatterofright。
　　Fromthesepremissestwoorthreecertainconclusionswillfollow:
　　First,Thateverycivilrightgrowsoutofanaturalright;or,inotherwords,isanaturalrightexchanged。
　　Secondly,Thatcivilpowerproperlyconsideredassuchismadeupoftheaggregateofthatclassofthenaturalrightsofman,whichbecomesdefectiveintheindividualinpointofpower,andanswersnothispurpose,butwhencollectedtoafocusbecomescompetenttothePurposeofeveryone。
　　Thirdly,Thatthepowerproducedfromtheaggregateofnaturalrights,imperfectinpowerintheindividual,cannotbeappliedtoinvadethenaturalrightswhichareretainedintheindividual,andinwhichthepowertoexecuteisasperfectastherightitself。
　　Wehavenow,inafewwords,tracedmanfromanaturalindividualtoamemberofsociety,andshown,orendeavouredtoshow,thequalityofthenaturalrightsretained,andofthosewhichareexchangedforcivilrights。Letusnowapplytheseprinciplestogovernments。
　　Incastingoureyesovertheworld,itisextremelyeasytodistinguishthegovernmentswhichhavearisenoutofsociety,oroutofthesocialcompact,fromthosewhichhavenot;buttoplacethisinaclearerlightthanwhatasingleglancemayafford,itwillbepropertotakeareviewoftheseveralsourcesfromwhichgovernmentshavearisenandonwhichtheyhavebeenfounded。
　　Theymaybeallcomprehendedunderthreeheads。
　　First,Superstition。
　　Secondly,Power。
　　Thirdly,Thecommoninterestofsocietyandthecommonrightsofman。
　　Thefirstwasagovernmentofpriestcraft,thesecondofconquerors,andthethirdofreason。
　　Whenasetofartfulmenpretended,throughthemediumoforacles,toholdintercoursewiththeDeity,asfamiliarlyastheynowmarchuptheback—stairsinEuropeancourts,theworldwascompletelyunderthegovernmentofsuperstition。Theoracleswereconsulted,andwhatevertheyweremadetosaybecamethelaw;andthissortofgovernmentlastedaslongasthissortofsuperstitionlasted。
　　Afterthesearaceofconquerorsarose,whosegovernment,likethatofWilliamtheConqueror,wasfoundedinpower,andtheswordassumedthenameofasceptre。Governmentsthusestablishedlastaslongasthepowertosupportthemlasts;butthattheymightavailthemselvesofeveryengineintheirfavor,theyunitedfraudtoforce,andsetupanidolwhichtheycalledDivineRight,andwhich,inimitationofthePope,whoaffectstobespiritualandtemporal,andincontradictiontotheFounderoftheChristianreligion,twisteditselfafterwardsintoanidolofanothershape,calledChurchandState。ThekeyofSt。PeterandthekeyoftheTreasurybecamequarteredononeanother,andthewonderingcheatedmultitudeworshippedtheinvention。
　　WhenIcontemplatethenaturaldignityofman,whenIfeel（forNaturehasnotbeenkindenoughtometobluntmyfeelings）forthehonourandhappinessofitscharacter,Ibecomeirritatedattheattempttogovernmankindbyforceandfraud,asiftheywereallknavesandfools,andcanscarcelyavoiddisgustatthosewhoarethusimposedupon。
　　Wehavenowtoreviewthegovernmentswhichariseoutofsociety,incontradistinctiontothosewhicharoseoutofsuperstitionandconquest。
　　IthasbeenthoughtaconsiderableadvancetowardsestablishingtheprinciplesofFreedomtosaythatGovernmentisacompactbetweenthosewhogovernandthosewhoaregoverned;butthiscannotbetrue,becauseitisputtingtheeffectbeforethecause;forasmanmusthaveexistedbeforegovernmentsexisted,therenecessarilywasatimewhengovernmentsdidnotexist,andconsequentlytherecouldoriginallyexistnogovernorstoformsuchacompactwith。
　　Thefactthereforemustbethattheindividualsthemselves,eachinhisownpersonalandsovereignright,enteredintoacompactwitheachothertoproduceagovernment:andthisistheonlymodeinwhichgovernmentshavearighttoarise,andtheonlyprincipleonwhichtheyhavearighttoexist。
　　Topossessourselvesofaclearideaofwhatgovernmentis,oroughttobe,wemusttraceittoitsorigin。Indoingthisweshalleasilydiscoverthatgovernmentsmusthaveariseneitheroutofthepeopleoroverthepeople。Mr。Burkehasmadenodistinction。Heinvestigatesnothingtoitssource,andthereforeheconfoundseverything;buthehassignifiedhisintentionofundertaking,atsomefutureopportunity,acomparisonbetweentheconstitutionofEnglandandFrance。Ashethusrendersitasubjectofcontroversybythrowingthegauntlet,Itakehimuponhisownground。
　　Itisinhighchallengesthathightruthshavetherightofappearing;
　　andIacceptitwiththemorereadinessbecauseitaffordsme,atthesametime,anopportunityofpursuingthesubjectwithrespecttogovernmentsarisingoutofsociety。
　　ButitwillbefirstnecessarytodefinewhatismeantbyaConstitution。
　　Itisnotsufficientthatweadopttheword;wemustfixalsoastandardsignificationtoit。
　　Aconstitutionisnotathinginnameonly,butinfact。Ithasnotanideal,butarealexistence;andwhereveritcannotbeproducedinavisibleform,thereisnone。Aconstitutionisathingantecedenttoagovernment,andagovernmentisonlythecreatureofaconstitution。Theconstitutionofacountryisnottheactofitsgovernment,butofthepeopleconstitutingitsgovernment。Itisthebodyofelements,towhichyoucanrefer,andquotearticlebyarticle;andwhichcontainstheprinciplesonwhichthegovernmentshallbeestablished,themannerinwhichitshallbeorganised,thepowersitshallhave,themodeofelections,thedurationofParliaments,orbywhatothernamesuchbodiesmaybecalled;thepowerswhichtheexecutivepartofthegovernmentshallhave;andinfine,everythingthatrelatestothecompleteorganisationofacivilgovernment,andtheprinciplesonwhichitshallact,andbywhichitshallbebound。Aconstitution,therefore,istoagovernmentwhatthelawsmadeafterwardsbythatgovernmentaretoacourtofjudicature。Thecourtofjudicaturedoesnotmakethelaws,neithercanitalterthem;itonlyactsinconformitytothelawsmade:andthegovernmentisinlikemannergovernedbytheconstitution。
　　Can,then,Mr。BurkeproducetheEnglishConstitution？Ifhecannot,wemayfairlyconcludethatthoughithasbeensomuchtalkedabout,nosuchthingasaconstitutionexists,oreverdidexist,andconsequentlythatthepeoplehaveyetaconstitutiontoform。
　　Mr。Burkewillnot,Ipresume,denythepositionIhavealreadyadvanced—
　　namely,thatgovernmentsariseeitheroutofthepeopleoroverthepeople。
　　TheEnglishGovernmentisoneofthosewhicharoseoutofaconquest,andnotoutofsociety,andconsequentlyitaroseoverthepeople;andthoughithasbeenmuchmodifiedfromtheopportunityofcircumstancessincethetimeofWilliamtheConqueror,thecountryhasneveryetregenerateditself,andisthereforewithoutaconstitution。
　　IreadilyperceivethereasonwhyMr。BurkedeclinedgoingintothecomparisonbetweentheEnglishandFrenchconstitutions,becausehecouldnotbutperceive,whenhesatdowntothetask,thatnosuchathingasaconstitutionexistedonhissidethequestion。Hisbookiscertainlybulkyenoughtohavecontainedallhecouldsayonthissubject,anditwouldhavebeenthebestmannerinwhichpeoplecouldhavejudgedoftheirseparatemerits。Whythenhashedeclinedtheonlythingthatwasworthwhiletowriteupon？Itwasthestrongestgroundhecouldtake,iftheadvantageswereonhisside,buttheweakestiftheywerenot;andhisdecliningtotakeitiseitherasignthathecouldnotpossessitorcouldnotmaintainit。
　　Mr。Burkesaid,inaspeechlastwinterinParliament,"thatwhentheNationalAssemblyfirstmetinthreeOrders（theTiersEtat,theClergy,andtheNoblesse）,Francehadthenagoodconstitution。"Thisshows,amongnumerousotherinstances,thatMr。Burkedoesnotunderstandwhataconstitutionis。Thepersonssometwerenotaconstitution,butaconvention,tomakeaconstitution。
　　ThepresentNationalAssemblyofFranceis,strictlyspeaking,thepersonalsocialcompact。Themembersofitarethedelegatesofthenationinitsoriginalcharacter;futureassemblieswillbethedelegatesofthenationinitsorganisedcharacter。TheauthorityofthepresentAssemblyisdifferentfromwhattheauthorityoffutureAssemblieswillbe。Theauthorityofthepresentoneistoformaconstitution;theauthorityoffutureassemblieswillbetolegislateaccordingtotheprinciplesandformsprescribedinthatconstitution;andifexperienceshouldhereaftershowthatalterations,amendments,oradditionsarenecessary,theconstitutionwillpointoutthemodebywhichsuchthingsshallbedone,andnotleaveittothediscretionarypowerofthefuturegovernment。
　　Agovernmentontheprinciplesonwhichconstitutionalgovernmentsarisingoutofsocietyareestablished,cannothavetherightofalteringitself。
　　Ifithad,itwouldbearbitrary。Itmightmakeitselfwhatitpleased;
　　andwhereversucharightissetup,itshowsthereisnoconstitution。
　　TheactbywhichtheEnglishParliamentempowereditselftositsevenyears,showsthereisnoconstitutioninEngland。Itmight,bythesameself—authority,havesatanygreatnumberofyears,orforlife。ThebillwhichthepresentMr。PittbroughtintoParliamentsomeyearsago,toreformParliament,wasonthesameerroneousprinciple。Therightofreformisinthenationinitsoriginalcharacter,andtheconstitutionalmethodwouldbebyageneralconventionelectedforthepurpose。Thereis,moreover,aparadoxintheideaofvitiatedbodiesreformingthemselves。
　　FromthesepreliminariesIproceedtodrawsomecomparisons。Ihavealreadyspokenofthedeclarationofrights;andasImeantobeasconciseaspossible,IshallproceedtootherpartsoftheFrenchConstitution。
　　TheconstitutionofFrancesaysthateverymanwhopaysataxofsixtysousperannum（2s。6d。English）isanelector。WhatarticlewillMr。Burkeplaceagainstthis？Cananythingbemorelimited,andatthesametimemorecapricious,thanthequalificationofelectorsisinEngland？Limited—
　　becausenotonemaninanhundred（Ispeakmuchwithincompass）isadmittedtovote。Capricious—becausethelowestcharacterthatcanbesupposedtoexist,andwhohasnotsomuchasthevisiblemeansofanhonestlivelihood,isanelectorinsomeplaces:whileinotherplaces,themanwhopaysverylargetaxes,andhasaknownfaircharacter,andthefarmerwhorentstotheamountofthreeorfourhundredpoundsayear,withapropertyonthatfarmtothreeorfourtimesthatamount,isnotadmittedtobeanelector。
　　Everythingisoutofnature,asMr。Burkesaysonanotheroccasion,inthisstrangechaos,andallsortsoffolliesareblendedwithallsortsofcrimes。WilliamtheConquerorandhisdescendantsparcelledoutthecountryinthismanner,andbribedsomepartsofitbywhattheycallcharterstoholdtheotherpartsofitthebettersubjectedtotheirwill。ThisisthereasonwhysomanyofthosechartersaboundinCornwall;thepeoplewereaversetotheGovernmentestablishedattheConquest,andthetownsweregarrisonedandbribedtoenslavethecountry。Alltheoldchartersarethebadgesofthisconquest,anditisfromthissourcethatthecapriciousnessofelectionarises。
　　TheFrenchConstitutionsaysthatthenumberofrepresentativesforanyplaceshallbeinaratiotothenumberoftaxableinhabitantsorelectors。
　　WhatarticlewillMr。Burkeplaceagainstthis？ThecountyofYork,whichcontainsnearlyamillionofsouls,sendstwocountymembers;andsodoesthecountyofRutland,whichcontainsnotanhundredthpartofthatnumber。
　　TheoldtownofSarum,whichcontainsnotthreehouses,sendstwomembers;
　　andthetownofManchester,whichcontainsupwardofsixtythousandsouls,isnotadmittedtosendany。Isthereanyprincipleinthesethings？Itisadmittedthatallthisisaltered,butthereismuchtobedoneyet,beforewehaveafairrepresentationofthepeople。Isthereanythingbywhichyoucantracethemarksoffreedom,ordiscoverthoseofwisdom？
　　NowonderthenMr。Burkehasdeclinedthecomparison,andendeavoredtoleadhisreadersfromthepointbyawild,unsystematicaldisplayofparadoxicalrhapsodies。
　　TheFrenchConstitutionsaysthattheNationalAssemblyshallbeelectedeverytwoyears。WhatarticlewillMr。Burkeplaceagainstthis？Why,thatthenationhasnorightatallinthecase;thatthegovernmentisperfectlyarbitrarywithrespecttothispoint;andhecanquoteforhisauthoritytheprecedentofaformerParliament。
　　TheFrenchConstitutionsaysthereshallbenogamelaws,thatthefarmeronwhoselandswildgameshallbefound（foritisbytheproduceofhislandstheyarefed）shallhavearighttowhathecantake;thatthereshallbenomonopoliesofanykind—thatalltradesshallbefreeandeverymanfreetofollowanyoccupationbywhichhecanprocureanhonestlivelihood,andinanyplace,town,orcitythroughoutthenation。WhatwillMr。Burkesaytothis？InEngland,gameismadethepropertyofthoseatwhoseexpenseitisnotfed;andwithrespecttomonopolies,thecountryiscutupintomonopolies。Everycharteredtownisanaristocraticalmonopolyinitself,andthequalificationofelectorsproceedsoutofthosecharteredmonopolies。
　　Isthisfreedom？IsthiswhatMr。Burkemeansbyaconstitution？
　　Inthesecharteredmonopolies,amancomingfromanotherpartofthecountryishuntedfromthemasifhewereaforeignenemy。AnEnglishmanisnotfreeofhisowncountry;everyoneofthoseplacespresentsabarrierinhisway,andtellshimheisnotafreeman—thathehasnorights。Withinthesemonopoliesareothermonopolies。Inacity,suchforinstanceasBath,whichcontainsbetweentwentyandthirtythousandinhabitants,therightofelectingrepresentativestoParliamentismonopolisedbyaboutthirty—onepersons。Andwithinthesemonopoliesarestillothers。Amanevenofthesametown,whoseparentswerenotincircumstancestogivehimanoccupation,isdebarred,inmanycases,fromthenaturalrightofacquiringone,behisgeniusorindustrywhatitmay。
　　Arethesethingsexamplestoholdouttoacountryregeneratingitselffromslavery,likeFrance？Certainlytheyarenot,andcertainamI,thatwhenthepeopleofEnglandcometoreflectuponthemtheywill,likeFrance,annihilatethosebadgesofancientoppression,thosetracesofaconquerednation。HadMr。Burkepossessedtalentssimilartotheauthorof"OntheWealthofNations。"hewouldhavecomprehendedallthepartswhichenterinto,and,byassemblage,formaconstitution。Hewouldhavereasonedfromminutiaetomagnitude。Itisnotfromhisprejudicesonly,butfromthedisorderlycastofhisgenius,thatheisunfittedforthesubjecthewritesupon。Evenhisgeniusiswithoutaconstitution。Itisageniusatrandom,andnotageniusconstituted。Buthemustsaysomething。Hehasthereforemountedintheairlikeaballoon,todrawtheeyesofthemultitudefromthegroundtheystandupon。
　　MuchistobelearnedfromtheFrenchConstitution。ConquestandtyrannytransplantedthemselveswithWilliamtheConquerorfromNormandyintoEngland,andthecountryisyetdisfiguredwiththemarks。May,then,theexampleofallFrancecontributetoregeneratethefreedomwhichaprovinceofitdestroyed！
　　TheFrenchConstitutionsaysthattopreservethenationalrepresentationfrombeingcorrupt,nomemberoftheNationalAssemblyshallbeanofficerofthegovernment,aplacemanorapensioner。WhatwillMr。Burkeplaceagainstthis？Iwillwhisperhisanswer:LoavesandFishes。Ah！thisgovernmentofloavesandfisheshasmoremischiefinitthanpeoplehaveyetreflectedon。TheNationalAssemblyhasmadethediscovery,anditholdsouttheexampletotheworld。Hadgovernmentsagreedtoquarrelonpurposetofleecetheircountriesbytaxes,theycouldnothavesucceededbetterthantheyhavedone。
　　EverythingintheEnglishgovernmentappearstomethereverseofwhatitoughttobe,andofwhatitissaidtobe。TheParliament,imperfectlyandcapriciouslyelectedasitis,isneverthelesssupposedtoholdthenationalpurseintrustforthenation;butinthemannerinwhichanEnglishParliamentisconstructeditislikeamanbeingbothmortgagorandmortgagee,andinthecaseofmisapplicationoftrustitisthecriminalsittinginjudgmentuponhimself。Ifthosewhovotethesuppliesarethesamepersonswhoreceivethesupplieswhenvoted,andaretoaccountfortheexpenditureofthosesuppliestothosewhovotedthem,itisthemselvesaccountabletothemselves,andtheComedyofErrorsconcludeswiththepantomimeofHush。NeithertheMinisterialpartynortheOppositionwilltouchuponthiscase。Thenationalpurseisthecommonhackwhicheachmountsupon。
　　Itislikewhatthecountrypeoplecall"Rideandtie—youridealittleway,andthenI。"*[5]TheyorderthesethingsbetterinFrance。
　　TheFrenchConstitutionsaysthattherightofwarandpeaceisinthenation。Whereelseshoulditresidebutinthosewhoaretopaytheexpense？
　　InEnglandthisrightissaidtoresideinametaphorshownattheTowerforsixpenceorashillingapiece:soarethelions;anditwouldbeastepnearertoreasontosayitresidedinthem,foranyinanimatemetaphorisnomorethanahatoracap。WecanallseetheabsurdityofworshippingAaron'smoltencalf,orNebuchadnezzar'sgoldenimage;butwhydomencontinuetopractisethemselvestheabsurditiestheydespiseinothers？
　　ItmaywithreasonbesaidthatinthemannertheEnglishnationisrepresenteditsignifiesnotwheretherightresides,whetherintheCrownorintheParliament。Waristhecommonharvestofallthosewhoparticipateinthedivisionandexpenditureofpublicmoney,inallcountries。Itistheartofconqueringathome;theobjectofitisanincreaseofrevenue;
　　andasrevenuecannotbeincreasedwithouttaxes,apretencemustbemadeforexpenditure。InreviewingthehistoryoftheEnglishGovernment,itswarsanditstaxes,abystander,notblindedbyprejudicenorwarpedbyinterest,woulddeclarethattaxeswerenotraisedtocarryonwars,butthatwarswereraisedtocarryontaxes。
　　Mr。Burke,asamemberoftheHouseofCommons,isapartoftheEnglishGovernment;andthoughheprofesseshimselfanenemytowar,heabusestheFrenchConstitution,whichseekstoexplodeit。HeholdsuptheEnglishGovernmentasamodel,inallitsparts,toFrance;butheshouldfirstknowtheremarkswhichtheFrenchmakeuponit。Theycontendinfavoroftheirown,thattheportionoflibertyenjoyedinEnglandisjustenoughtoenslaveacountrymoreproductivelythanbydespotism,andthatastherealobjectofalldespotismisrevenue,agovernmentsoformedobtainsmorethanitcoulddoeitherbydirectdespotism,orinafullstateoffreedom,andis,thereforeonthegroundofinterest,opposedtoboth。
　　Theyaccountalsoforthereadinesswhichalwaysappearsinsuchgovernmentsforengaginginwarsbyremarkingonthedifferentmotiveswhichproducedthem。Indespoticgovernmentswarsaretheeffectofpride;butinthosegovernmentsinwhichtheybecomethemeansoftaxation,theyacquiretherebyamorepermanentpromptitude。
　　TheFrenchConstitution,therefore,toprovideagainstboththeseevils,hastakenawaythepowerofdeclaringwarfromkingsandministers,andplacedtherightwheretheexpensemustfall。
　　WhenthequestionoftherightofwarandpeacewasagitatingintheNationalAssembly,thepeopleofEnglandappearedtobemuchinterestedintheevent,andhighlytoapplaudthedecision。Asaprincipleitappliesasmuchtoonecountryasanother。WilliamtheConqueror,asaconqueror,heldthispowerofwarandpeaceinhimself,andhisdescendantshaveeversinceclaimeditunderhimasaright。
　　AlthoughMr。BurkehasassertedtherightoftheParliamentattheRevolutiontobindandcontrolthenationandposterityforever,hedeniesatthesametimethattheParliamentorthenationhadanyrighttoalterwhathecallsthesuccessionofthecrowninanythingbutinpart,orbyasortofmodification。ByhistakingthisgroundhethrowsthecasebacktotheNormanConquest,andbythusrunningalineofsuccessionspringingfromWilliamtheConquerortothepresentday,hemakesitnecessarytoenquirewhoandwhatWilliamtheConquerorwas,andwherehecamefrom,andintotheorigin,historyandnatureofwhatarecalledprerogatives。Everythingmusthavehadabeginning,andthefogoftimeandantiquityshouldbepenetratedtodiscoverit。Let,then,Mr。BurkebringforwardhisWilliamofNormandy,foritistothisoriginthathisargumentgoes。Italsounfortunatelyhappens,inrunningthislineofsuccession,thatanotherlineparalleltheretopresentsitself,whichisthatifthesuccessionrunsinthelineoftheconquest,thenationrunsinthelineofbeingconquered,anditoughttorescueitselffromthisreproach。