PreliminaryRemarks
　　Ineverydepartmentofhumanaffairs，PracticelongprecedesSciencesystematicenquiryintothemodesofactionofthepowersofnature，isthetardyproductofalongcourseofeffortstousethosepowersforpracticalends。Theconception，accordingly，ofPoliticalEconomyasabranchofscienceisextremelymodern;
　　butthesubjectwithwhichitsenquiriesareconversanthasinallagesnecessarilyconstitutedoneofthechiefpracticalinterestsofmankind，and，insome，amostundulyengrossingone。
　　ThatsubjectisWealth。WritersonPoliticalEconomyprofesstoteach，ortoinvestigate，thenatureofWealth，andthelawsofitsproductionanddistribution:including，directlyorremotely，theoperationofallthecausesbywhichtheconditionofmankind，orofanysocietyofhumanbeings，inrespecttothisuniversalobjectofhumandesire，ismadeprosperousorthereverse。NotthatanytreatiseonPoliticalEconomycandiscussorevenenumerateallthesecauses;butitundertakestosetforthasmuchasisknownofthelawsandprinciplesaccordingtowhichtheyoperate。
　　Everyonehasanotion，sufficientlycorrectforcommonpurposes，ofwhatismeantbywealth。Theenquirieswhichrelatetoitareinnodangerofbeingconfoundedwiththoserelatingtoanyotherofthegreathumaninterests。Allknowthatitisonethingtoberich，anotherthingtobeenlightened，brave，orhumane;thatthequestionshowanationismadewealthy，andhowitismadefree，orvirtuous，oreminentinliterature，inthefinearts，inarms，orinpolity，aretotallydistinctenquiries。
　　Thosethings，indeed，areallindirectlyconnected，andreactupononeanother。Apeoplehassometimesbecomefree，becauseithadfirstgrownwealthy;orwealthy，becauseithadfirstbecomefree。Thecreedandlawsofapeopleactpowerfullyupontheireconomicalcondition;andthisagain，byitsinfluenceontheirmentaldevelopmentandsocialrelations，reactsupontheircreedandlaws。Butthoughthesubjectsareinveryclosecontact，theyareessentiallydifferent，andhaveneverbeensupposedtobeotherwise。
　　Itisnopartofthedesignofthistreatisetoaimatmetaphysicalnicetyofdefinition，wheretheideassuggestedbyatermarealreadyasdeterminateaspracticalpurposesrequire。
　　But，littleasitmightbeexpectedthatanymischievousconfusionofideascouldtakepLaceonasubjectsosimpleasthequestion，whatistobeconsideredasweaLth，itismatterofhistory，thatsuchconfusionofideashasexisted—thattheoristsandpracticalpoLiticianshavebeenequallyandatoneperioduniversally，infectedbyit，andthatformanygenerationsitgaveathoroughlyfaLsedirectiontothepolicyofEurope。I
　　refertothesetofdoctrinesdesignated，sincethetimeofAdamSmith，bytheappellationoftheMercantileSystem。
　　Whilethissystemprevailed，itwasassumed，eitherexpresslyortacitly，inthewholepolicyofnations，thatwealthconsistedsolelyofmoney;orofthepreciousmetals，which，whennotalreadyinthestateofmoney，arecapableofbeingdirectlyconvertedintoit。Accordingtothedoctrinesthenprevalent，whatevertendedtoheapupmoneyorbullioninacountryaddedtoitswealth。Whateversentthepreciousmetalsoutofacountryimpoverishedit。Ifacountrypossessednogoldorsilvermines，theonlyindustrybywhichitcouldbeenrichedwasforeigntrade，beingtheonlyonewhichcouldbringinmoney。Anybranchoftradewhichwassupposedtosendoutmoremoneythanitbroughtin，howeverampleandvaluablemightbethereturnsinanothershape，waslookeduponasalosingtrade。Exportationofgoodswasfavouredandencouraged（evenbymeansextremelyoneroustotherealresourcesofthecountry），because，theexportedgoodsbeingstipulatedtobepaidforinmoney，itwashopedthatthereturnswouldactuallybemadeingoldandsilver。
　　Importationofanything，otherthanthepreciousmetals，wasregardedasalosstothenationofthewholepriceofthethingsimported;unlesstheywerebroughtintobere—exportedataprofit，orunless，beingthematerialsorinstrumentsofsomeindustrypractisedinthecountryitself，theygavethepowerofproducingexportablearticlesatsmallercost，andtherebyeffectingalargerexportation。Thecommerceoftheworldwaslookeduponasastruggleamongnations，whichcoulddrawtoitselfthelargestshareofthegoldandsilverinexistence;andinthiscompetitionnonationcouldgainanything，exceptbymakingothersloseasmuch，or，attheleast，preventingthemfromgainingit。
　　Itoftenhappensthattheuniversalbeliefofoneageofmankind—abelieffromwhichnoonewas，norwithoutanextraordinaryeffortofgeniusandcourage，couldatthattimebefree—becomestoasubsequentagesopalpableanabsurdity，thattheonlydifficultythenistoimaginehowsuchathingcaneverhaveappearedcredible。Ithassohappenedwiththedoctrinethatmoneyissynonymouswithwealth。Theconceitseemstoopreposteroustobethoughtofasaseriousopinion。Itlookslikeoneofthecrudefanciesofchildhood，instantlycorrectedbyawordfromanygrownperson。Butletnoonefeelconfidentthathewouldhaveescapedthedelusionifhehadlivedatthetimewhenitprevailed。Alltheassociationsengenderedbycommonlife，andbytheordinarycourseofbusiness，concurredinpromotingit。SoLongasthoseassociationsweretheonlymediumthroughwhichthesubjectwaslookedat，whatwenowthinksogrossanabsurdityseemedatruism。Oncequestioned，indeed，itwasdoomed;butnoonewaslikelytothinkofquestioningitwhosemindhadnotbecomefamiliarwithcertainmodesofstatingandofcontemplatingeconomicalphenomena，whichhaveonlyfoundtheirwayintothegeneralunderstandingthroughtheinfluenceofAdamSmithandofhisexpositors。
　　Incommondiscourse，wealthisalwaysexpressedinmoney。Ifyouaskhowrichapersonis，youareansweredthathehassomanythousandpounds。Allincomeandexpenditure，allgainsandlosses，everythingbywhichonebecomesricherorpoorer，arereckonedasthecominginorgoingoutofsomuchmoney。Itistruethatintheinventoryofaperson’sfortuneareincluded，notonlythemoneyinhisactualpossession，orduetohim，butallotherarticlesofvalue。These，however，enter，notintheirowncharacter，butinvirtueofthesumsofmoneywhichtheywouldsellfor;andiftheywouldsellforless，theirownerisreputedlessrich，thoughthethingsthemselvesarepreciselythesame。Itistrue，also，thatpeopledonotgrowrichbykeepingtheirmoneyunused，andthattheymustbewillingtospendinordertogain。Thosewhoenrichthemselvesbycommerce，dosobygivingmoneyforgoodsaswellasgoodsformoney;andthefirstisasnecessaryapartoftheprocessasthelast。Butapersonwhobuysgoodsforpurposesofgain，doessotosellthemagainformoney，andintheexpectationofreceivingmoremoneythanhelaidout:togetmoney，therefore，seemseventothepersonhimselftheultimateendofthewhole。Itoftenhappensthatheisnotpaidinmoney，butinsomethingelse;havingboughtgoodstoavalueequivalent，whicharesetoffagainstthosehesold。
　　Butheacceptedtheseatamoneyvaluation，andinthebeliefthattheywouldbringinmoremoneyeventuallythanthepriceatwhichtheyweremadeovertohim。Adealerdoingalargeamountofbusiness，andturningoverhiscapitalrapidly，hasbutasmallportionofitinreadymoneyatanyonetime。Butheonlyfeelsitvaluabletohimasitisconvertibleintomoney:heconsidersnotransactioncloseduntilthenetresultiseitherpaidorcreditedinmoney……whenheretiresfrombusinessitisintomoneythatheconvertsthewhole，andnotuntilthendoeshedeemhimselftohaverealizedhisgains:justasifmoneyweretheonlywealth，andmoney’sworthwereonlythemeansofattainingit。Ifitbenowaskedforwhatendmoneyisdesirable，unlesstosupplythewantsorpleasuresofoneselforothers，thechampionofthesystemwouldnotbeatallembarrassedbythequestion。True，hewouldsay，thesearetheusesofwealth，andverylaudableuseswhileconfinedtodomesticcommodities，becauseinthatcase，byexactlytheamountwhichyouexpend，youenrichothersofyourcountrymen。Spendyourwealth，ifyouplease，inwhateverindulgencesyouhaveatastefor。butyourwealthisnottheindulgences，itisthesumofmoney，ortheannualmoneyincome，withwhichyoupurchasethem。
　　Whilethereweresomanythingstorendertheassumptionwhichisthebasisofthemercantilesystemplausible，thereisalsosomesmallfoundationinreason，thoughaveryinsufficientone，forthedistinctionwhichthatsystemsoemphaticallydrawsbetweenmoneyandeveryotherkindofvaluablepossession。Wereally，andjustly，lookuponapersonaspossessingtheadvantagesofwealth，notinproportiontotheusefulandagreeablethingsofwhichheisintheactualenjoyment，buttohiscommandoverthegeneralfundofthingsusefulandagreeable;
　　thepowerhepossessesofprovidingforanyexigency，orobtaininganyobjectofdesire。Now，moneyisitselfthatpower;
　　whileallotherthings，inacivilizedstate，seemtoconferitonlybytheircapacityofbeingexchangedformoney。Topossessanyotherarticleofwealth，istopossessthatparticularthing，andnothingelse:ifyouwishforanotherthinginsteadofit，youhavefirsttosellit，ortosubmittotheinconvenienceanddelay（ifnottheimpossibility）offindingsomeonewhohaswhatyouwant，andiswillingtobarteritforwhatyouhave。Butwithmoneyyouareatonceabletobuywhateverthingsareforsale:
　　andonewhosefortuneisinmoney，orinthingsrapidlyconvertibleintoit，seemsbothtohimselfandotherstopossessnotanyonething，butallthethingswhichthemoneyplacesitathisoptiontopurchase。Thegreatestpartoftheutilityofwealth，beyondaverymoderatequantity，isnottheindulgencesitprocures，butthereservedpowerwhichitspossessorholdsinhishandsofattainingpurposesgenerally;andthispowernootherkindofwealthconferssoimmediatelyorsocertainlyasmoney。Itistheonlyformofwealthwhichisnotmerelyapplicabletosomeoneuse，butcanbeturnedatoncetoanyuse。
　　Andthisdistinctionwasthemorelikelytomakeanimpressionupongovernments，asitisoneofconsiderableimportancetothem。Acivilizedgovernmentderivescomparativelylittleadvantagefromtaxesunlessitcancollecttheminmoney:andifithaslargeorsuddenpaymentstomake，especiallypaymentsinforeigncountriesforwarsorsubsidies，eitherforthesakeofconqueringorofnotbeingconquered（thetwochiefobjectsofnationalpolicyuntilalateperiod），scarcelyanymediumofpaymentexceptmoneywillservethepurpose。Allthesecausesconspiretomakebothindividualsandgovernments，inestimatingtheirmeans，attachalmostexclusiveimportancetomoney，eitherinesseorinposse，andlookuponallotherthings（whenviewedaspartoftheirresources）scarcelyotherwisethanastheremotemeansofobtainingthatwhichalone，whenobtained，affordstheindefinite，andatthesametimeinstantaneous，commandoverobjectsofdesire，whichbestanswerstotheideaofwealth。
　　Anabsurdity，however，doesnotceasetobeanabsurditywhenwehavediscoveredwhatweretheappearanceswhichmadeitplausible;andtheMercantileTheorycouldnotfailtobeseeninitstruecharacterwhenmenbegan，eveninanimperfectmanner，toexploreintothefoundationsofthings，andseektheirpremisesfromelementaryfacts，andnotfromtheformsandphrasesofcommondiscourse。Sosoonastheyaskedthemselveswhatisreallymeantbymoney—whatitisinitsessentialcharacters，andtheprecisenatureofthefunctionsitperforms—theyreflectedthatmoney，likeotherthings，isonlyadesirablepossessiononaccountofitsuses;andthatthese，insteadofbeing，astheydelusivelyappear，indefinite，areofastrictlydefinedandlimiteddescription，namely，tofacilitatethedistributionoftheproduceofindustryaccordingtotheconvenienceofthoseamongwhomitisshared。Furtherconsiderationshowedthattheusesofmoneyareinnorespectpromotedbyincreasingthequantitywhichexistsandcirculatesinacountry;theservicewhichitperformsbeingaswellrenderedbyasmallasbyalargeaggregateamount。Twomillionquartersofcornwillnotfeedsomanypersonsasfourmillions;
　　buttwomillionsofpoundssterlingwillcarryonasmuchtraffic，willbuyandsellasmanycommodities，asfourmillions，thoughatlowernominalprices。Money，asmoney，satisfiesnowant;itsworthtoanyone，consistsinitsbeingaconvenientshapeinwhichtoreceivehisincomingsofallsorts，whichincomingsheafterwards，atthetimeswhichsuithimbest，convertsintotheformsinwhichtheycanbeusefultohim。Greatasthedifferencewouldbebetweenacountrywithmoney，andacountryaltogetherwithoutit，itwouldbeonlyoneofconvenience;asavingoftimeandtrouble，likegrindingbywaterpowerinsteadofbyhand，or（touseAdamSmith’sillustration）
　　likethebenefitderivedfromroads;andtomistakemoneyforwealth，isthesamesortoferrorastomistakethehighwaywhichmaybetheeasiestwayofgettingtoyourhouseorlands，forthehouseandlandsthemselves。
　　Money，beingtheinstrumentofanimportantpublicandprivatepurpose，isrightlyregardedaswealth;buteverythingelsewhichservesanyhumanpurpose，andwhichnaturedoesnotaffordgratuitously，iswealthalso。Tobewealthyistohavealargestockofusefularticles，orthemeansofpurchasingthem。
　　Everythingformsthereforeapartofwealth，whichhasapowerofpurchasing;forwhichanythingusefuloragreeablewouldbegiveninexchange。Thingsforwhichnothingcouldbeobtainedinexchange，howeverusefulornecessarytheymaybe，arenotwealthinthesenseinwhichthetermisusedinPoliticalEconomy。Air，forexample，thoughthemostabsoluteofnecessaries，bearsnopriceinthemarket，becauseitcanbeobtainedgratuitously:toaccumulateastockofitwouldyieldnoprofitoradvantagetoanyone;andthelawsofitsproductionanddistributionarethesubjectofaverydifferentstudyfromPoliticalEconomy。Butthoughairisnotwealth，mankindaremuchricherbyobtainingitgratis，sincethetimeandlabourwhichwouldotherwiseberequiredforsupplyingthemostpressingofallwants，canbedevotedtootherpurposes。Itispossibletoimaginecircumstancesinwhichairwouldbeapartofwealth。Ifitbecamecustomarytosojournlonginplaceswheretheairdoesnotnaturallypenetrate，asindiving—bellssunkinthesea，asupplyofairartificiallyfurnishedwould，likewaterconveyedintohouses，bearaprice:andiffromanyrevolutioninnaturetheatmospherebecametooscantyfortheconsumption，orcouldbemonopolized，airmightacquireaveryhighmarketablevalue。Insuchacase，thepossessionofit，beyondhisownwants，wouldbe，toitsowner，wealth;andthegeneralwealthofmankindmightatfirstsightappeartobeincreased，bywhatwouldbesogreatacalamitytothem。Theerrorwouldlieinnotconsidering，thathoweverrichthepossessorofairmightbecomeattheexpenseoftherestofthecommunity，allpersonselsewouldbepoorerbyallthattheywerecompelledtopayforwhattheyhadbeforeobtainedwithoutpayment。
　　Thisleadstoanimportantdistinctioninthemeaningofthewordwealth，asappliedtothepossessionsofanindividual，andtothoseofanation，orofmankind。Inthewealthofmankind，nothingisincludedwhichdoesnotofitselfanswersomepurposeofutilityorpleasure。Toanindividualanythingiswealth，which，thoughuselessinitself，enableshimtoclaimfromothersapartoftheirstockofthingsusefulorpleasant。Take，forinstance，amortgageofathousandpoundsonalandedestate。
　　Thisiswealthtothepersontowhomitbringsinarevenue，andwhocouldperhapssellitinthemarketforthefullamountofthedebt。Butitisnotwealthtothecountry;iftheengagementwereannulled，thecountrywouldbeneitherpoorernorricher。
　　Themortgageewouldhavelostathousandpounds，andtheownerofthelandwouldhavegainedit。Speakingnationally，themortgagewasnotitselfwealth，butmerelygaveAaclaimtoaportionofthewealthofB。ItwaswealthtoA，andwealthwhichhecouldtransfertoathirdperson;butwhathesotransferredwasinfactajointownership，totheextentofathousandpounds，inthelandofwhichBwasnominallythesoleproprietor。Thepositionoffundholders，orownersofthepublicdebtofacountry，issimilar。Theyaremortgageesonthegeneralwealthofthecountry。Thecancellingofthedebtwouldbenodestructionofwealth，butatransferofit:awrongfulabstractionofwealthfromcertainmembersofthecommunity，fortheprofitofthegovernment，orofthetax—payers。Fundedpropertythereforecannotbecountedaspartofthenationalwealth。Thisisnotalwaysborneinmindbythedealersinstatisticalcalculations。
　　Forexample，inestimatesofthegrossincomeofthecountry，foundedontheproceedsoftheincome—tax，incomesderivedfromthefundsarenotalwaysexcluded:thoughthetax—payersareassessedontheirwholenominalincome，withoutbeingpermittedtodeductfromittheportionleviedfromthemintaxationtoformtheincomeofthefundholder。Inthiscalculation，therefore，oneportionofthegeneralincomeofthecountryiscountedtwiceover，andtheaggregateamountmadetoappeargreaterthanitisbyalmostthirtymillions。Acountry，however，mayincludeinitswealthallstockheldbyitscitizensinthefundsofforeigncountries，andotherdebtsduetothemfromabroad。Buteventhisisonlywealthtothembybeingapartownershipinwealthheldbyothers。Itformsnopartofthecollectivewealthofthehumanrace。Itisanelementinthedistribution，butnotinthecomposition，ofthegeneralwealth。
　　Anotherexampleofapossessionwhichiswealthtothepersonholdingit，butnotwealthtothenation，ortomankind，isslaves。Itisbyastrangeconfusionofideasthatslaveproperty（asitistermed）iscounted，atsomuchperhead，inanestimateofthewealth，orofthecapital，ofthecountrywhichtoleratestheexistenceofsuchproperty。Ifahumanbeing，consideredasanobjectpossessingproductivepowers，ispartofthenationalwealthwhenhispowersareownedbyanotherman，hecannotbelessapartofitwhentheyareownedbyhimself。Whateverheisworthtohismasterissomuchpropertyabstractedfromhimself，anditsabstractioncannotaugmentthepossessionsofthetwotogether，orofthecountrytowhichtheybothbelong。Inproprietyofclassification，however，thepeopleofacountryarenottobecountedinitswealth。Theyarethatforthesakeofwhichitswealthexists。Thetermwealthiswantedtodenotethedesirableobjectswhichtheypossess，notinclusiveof，butincontradistinctionto，theirownpersons。Theyarenotwealthtothemselves，thoughtheyaremeansofacquiringit。
　　Ithasbeenproposedtodefinewealthassignifying"instruments:"meaningnottoolsandmachineryalone，butthewholeaccumulationpossessedbyindividualsorcommunities，ofmeansfortheattainmentoftheirends。Thus，afieldisaninstrument，becauseitisameanstotheattainmentofcorn。Cornisaninstrument，beingameanstotheattainmentofflour。Flourisaninstrument，beingameanstotheattainmentofbread。Breadisaninstrument，asameanstothesatisfactionofhungerandtothesupportoflife。Hereweatlastarriveatthingswhicharenotinstruments，beingdesiredontheirownaccount，andnotasmeremeanstosomethingbeyond。Thisviewofthesubjectisphilosophicallycorrect;orrather，thismodeofexpressionmaybeusefullyemployedalongwithothers，notasconveyingadifferentviewofthesubjectfromthecommonone，butasgivingmoredistinctnessandrealitytothecommonview。Itdeparts，however，toowidelyfromthecustomoflanguage，tobelikelytoobtaingeneralacceptance，ortobeofuseforanyotherpurposethanthatofoccasionalillustration。
　　Wealth，then，maybedefined，allusefuloragreeablethingswhichpossessexchangeablevalue;or，inotherwords，allusefuloragreeablethingsexceptthosewhichcanbeobtained，inthequantitydesired，withoutlabourorsacrifice。Tothisdefinition，theonlyobjectionseemstobe，thatitleavesinuncertaintyaquestionwhichhasbeenmuchdebated——whetherwhatarecalledimmaterialproductsaretobeconsideredaswealth:whether，forexample，theskillofaworkman，oranyothernaturaloracquiredpowerofbodyormind，shallbecalledwealth，ornot:aquestion，notofverygreatimportance，andwhich，sofarasrequiringdiscussion，willbemoreconvenientlyconsideredinanotherplace。
　　Thesethingshavingbeenpremisedrespectingwealth，weshallnextturnourattentiontotheextraordinarydifferencesinrespecttoit，whichexistbetweennationandnation，andbetweendifferentagesoftheworld;differencesbothinthequantityofwealth，andinthekindofit;aswellasinthemannerinwhichthewealthexistinginthecommunityissharedamongitsmembers。
　　Thereisperhaps，nopeopleorcommunity，nowexisting，whichsubsistsentirelyonthespontaneousproduceofvegetation。Butmanytribesstillliveexclusively，oralmostexclusively，onwildanimals，theproduceofhuntingorfishing。Theirclothingisskins;theirhabitations，hutsrudelyformedoflogsorboughsoftrees，andabandonedatanhour’snotice。Thefoodtheyusebeinglittlesusceptibleofstoringup，theyhavenoaccumulationofit，andareoftenexposedtogreatprivations。Thewealthofsuchacommunityconsistssolelyoftheskinstheywear;afewornaments，thetasteforwhichexistsamongmostsavages;somerudeutensils;theweaponswithwhichtheykilltheirgame，orfightagainsthostilecompetitorsforthemeansofsubsistence;
　　canoesforcrossingriversandlakes，orfishinginthesea;andperhapssomefursorotherproductionsofthewilderness，collectedtobeexchangedwithcivilizedpeopleforblankets，brandy，andtobacco;ofwhichforeignproducealsotheremaybesomeunconsumedportioninstore。Tothisscantyinventoryofmaterialwealth，oughttobeaddedtheirland;aninstrumentofproductionofwhichtheymakeslenderuse，comparedwithmoresettledcommunities，butwhichisstillthesourceoftheirsubsistence，andwhichhasamarketablevalueiftherebeanyagriculturalcommunityintheneighbourhoodrequiringmorelandthanitpossesses。Thisisthestateofgreatestpovertyinwhichanyentirecommunityofhumanbeingsisknowntoexist;thoughtherearemuchrichercommunitiesinwhichportionsoftheinhabitantsareinacondition，astosubsistenceandcomfort，aslittleenviableasthatofthesavage。
　　Thefirstgreatadvancebeyondthisstateconsistsinthedomesticationofthemoreusefulanimals;givingrisetothepastoralornomadstate，inwhichmankinddonotliveontheproduceofhunting，butonmilkanditsproducts，andontheannualincreaseofflocksandherds。Thisconditionisnotonlymoredesirableinitself，butmoreconducivetofurtherprogress:
　　andamuchmoreconsiderableamountofwealthisaccumulatedunderit。Solongasthevastnaturalpasturesoftheeartharenotyetsofullyoccupiedastobeconsumedmorerapidlythantheyarespontaneouslyreproduced，alargeandconstantlyincreasingstockofsubsistencemaybecollectedandpreserved，withlittleotherlabourthanthatofguardingthecattlefromtheattacksofwildbeasts，andfromtheforceorwilesofpredatorymen。Largeflocksandherds，therefore，areintimepossessed，byactiveandthriftyindividualsthroughtheirownexertions，andbytheheadsoffamiliesandtribesthroughtheexertionsofthosewhoareconnectedwiththembyallegiance。
　　Therethusarises，intheshepherdstate，inequalityofpossessions;athingwhichscarcelyexistsinthesavagestate，wherenoonehasmuchmorethanabsolutenecessaries，andincaseofdeficiencymustshareeventhosewithhistribe。Inthenomadstate，somehaveanabundanceofcattle，sufficientforthefoodofamultitude，whileothershavenotcontrivedtoappropriateandretainanysuperfluity，orperhapsanycattleatall。Butsubsistencehasceasedtobeprecarious，sincethemoresuccessfulhavenootherusewhichtheycanmakeoftheirsurplusthantofeedthelessfortunate，whileeveryincreaseinthenumberofpersonsconnectedwiththemisanincreasebothofsecurityandofpower:andthustheyareenabledtodivestthemselvesofalllabourexceptthatofgovernmentandsuperintendence，andacquiredependentstofightfortheminwarandtoservetheminpeace。Oneofthefeaturesofthisstateofsocietyis，thatapartofthecommunity，andinsomedegreeeventhewholeofit，possessleisure。Onlyaportionoftimeisrequiredforprocuringfood，andtheremainderisnotengrossedbyanxiousthoughtforthemorrow，ornecessaryreposefrommuscularactivity。Suchalifeishighlyfavourabletothegrowthofnewwants，andopensapossibilityoftheirgratification。A
　　desirearisesforbetterclothing，utensils，andimplements，thanthesavagestatecontentsitselfwith;andthesurplusfoodrendersitpracticabletodevotetothesepurposestheexertionsofapartofthetribe。Inallormostnomadcommunitieswefinddomesticmanufacturesofacoarse，andinsome，ofafinekind。
　　Thereisampleevidencethatwhilethosepartsoftheworldwhichhavebeenthecradleofmoderncivilizationwerestillgenerallyinthenomadstate，considerableskillhadbeenattainedinspinning，weaving，anddyeingwoollengarments，inthepreparationofleather，andinwhatappearsastillmoredifficultinvention，thatofworkinginmetals。Evenspeculativesciencetookitsfirstbeginningsfromtheleisurecharacteristicofthisstageofsocialprogress。Theearliestastronomicalobservationsareattributed，byatraditionwhichhasmuchappearanceoftruth，totheshepherdsofChaldea。
　　Fromthisstateofsocietytotheagriculturalthetransitionisnotindeedeasy（fornogreatchangeinthehabitsofmankindisotherwisethandifficult，andingeneraleitherpainfulorveryslow），butitliesinwhatmaybecalledthespontaneouscorseofevents。Thegrowthofthepopulationofmenandcattlebeganintimetopressupontheearth’scapabilitiesofyieldingnaturalpasture:andthiscausedoubtlessproducedthefirsttillingoftheground，justasatalaterperiodthesamecausemadethesuperfluoushordesofthenationswhichhadremainednomadprecipitatethemselvesuponthosewhichhadalreadybecomeagricultural;until，thesehavingbecomesufficientlypowerfultorepelsuchinroads，theinvadingnations，deprivedofthisoutlet，wereobligedalsotobecomeagriculturalcommunities。
　　Butafterthisgreatstephadbeencompleted，thesubsequentprogressofmankindseemsbynomeanstohavebeensorapid（certainrarecombinationsofcircumstancesexcepted）asmightperhapshavebeenanticipated。Thequantityofhumanfoodwhichtheearthiscapableofreturningeventothemostwretchedsystemofagriculture，somuchexceedswhatcouldbeobtainedinthepurelypastoralstate，thatagreatincreaseofpopulationisinvariablytheresult。Butthisadditionalfoodisonlyobtainedbyagreatadditionalamountoflabour;sothatnotonlyanagriculturalhasmuchlessleisurethanapastoralpopulation，but，withtheimperfecttoolsandunskilfulprocesseswhichareforalongtimeemployed（andwhichoverthegreaterpartoftheearthhavenotevenyetbeenabandoned），agriculturistsdonot，unlessinunusuallyadvantageouscircumstancesofclimateandsoil，producesogreatasurplusoffood，beyondtheirnecessaryconsumption，astosupportanylargeclassoflabourersengagedinotherdepartmentsofindustry。Thesurplus，too，whethersmallorgreat，isusuallytornfromtheproducers，eitherbythegovernmenttowhichtheyaresubject，orbyindividuals，whobysuperiorforce，orbyavailingthemselvesofreligiousortraditionalfeelingsofsubordination，haveestablishedthemselvesaslordsofthesoil。
　　Thefirstofthesemodesofappropriation，bythegovernment，ischaracteristicoftheextensivemonarchieswhichfromatimebeyondhistoricalrecordhaveoccupiedtheplainsofAsia。Thegovernment，inthosecountries，thoughvaryinginitsqualitiesaccordingtotheaccidentsofpersonalcharacter，seldomleavesmuchtothecultivatorsbeyondmerenecessaries，andoftenstripsthemsobareevenofthese，thatitfindsitselfobliged，aftertakingalltheyhave，tolendpartofitbacktothosefromwhomithasbeentaken，inordertoprovidethemwithseed，andenablethemtosupportlifeuntilanotherharvest。Underther間imeinquestion，thoughthebulkofthepopulationareillprovidedfor，thegovernment，bycollectingsmallcontributionsfromgreatnumbers，isenabled，withanytolerablemanagement，tomakeashowofrichesquiteoutofproportiontothegeneralconditionofthesociety;andhencetheinveterateimpression，ofwhichEuropeanshaveonlyatalateperiodbeendisabused，concerningthegreatopulenceofOrientalnations。Inthiswealth，withoutreckoningthelargeportionwhichadherestothehandsemployedincollectingit，manypersonsofcourseparticipate，besidestheimmediatehouseholdofthesovereign。Alargepartisdistributedamongthevariousfunctionariesofgovernment，andamongtheobjectsofthesovereign’sfavourorcaprice。Apartisoccasionallyemployedinworksofpublicutility。Thetanks，wells，andcanalsforirrigation，withoutwhichinmanytropicalclimatescultivationcouldhardlybecarriedon;theembankmentswhichconfinetherivers，thebazarsfordealers，andtheseraeesfortravellers，noneofwhichcouldhavebeenmadebythescantymeansinthepossessionofthoseusingthem，owetheirexistencetotheliberalityandenlightenedself—interestofthebetterorderofprinces，ortothebenevolenceorostentationofhereandtherearichindividual，whosefortune，iftracedtoitssource，isalwaysfoundtohavebeendrawnimmediatelyorremotelyfromthepublicrevenue，mostfrequentlybyadirectgrantofaportionofitfromthesovereign。
　　Therulerofasocietyofthisdescription，afterprovidinglargelyforhisownsupport，andthatofallpersonsinwhomhefeelsaninterest，andaftermaintainingasmanysoldiersashethinksneedfulforhissecurityorhisstate，hasadisposableresidue，whichheisgladtoexchangeforarticlesofluxurysuitabletohisdisposition:ashavealsotheclassofpersonswhohavebeenenrichedbyhisfavour，orbyhandlingthepublicrevenues。Ademandthusarisesforelaborateandcostlymanufacturedarticles，adaptedtoanarrowbutawealthymarket。
　　Thisdemandisoftensuppliedalmostexclusivelybythemerchantsofmoreadvancedcommunities，butoftenalsoraisesupinthecountryitselfaclassofartificers，bywhomcertainfabricsarecarriedtoashighexcellenceascanbegivenbypatience，quicknessofperceptionandobservation，andmanualdexterity，withoutanyconsiderableknowledgeofthepropertiesofobjects:
　　suchassomeofthecottonfabricsofIndia。Theseartificersarefedbythesurplusfoodwhichhasbeentakenbythegovernmentanditsagentsastheirshareoftheproduce。Soliterallyisthisthecase，thatinsomecountriestheworkman，insteadoftakinghisworkhome，andbeingpaidforitafteritisfinished，proceedswithhistoolstohiscustomer’shouse，andistheresubsisteduntiltheworkiscomplete。Theinsecurity，however，ofallpossessionsinthisstateofsociety，induceseventherichestpurchaserstogiveapreferencetosucharticlesas，beingofanimperishablenature，andcontaininggreatvalueinsmallbulk，areadaptedforbeingconcealedorcarriedoff。Goldandjewels，therefore，constitutealargeproportionofthewealthofthesenations，andmanyarichAsiaticcarriesnearlyhiswholefortuneonhisperson，oronthoseofthewomenofhisharem。Noone，exceptthemonarch，thinksofinvestinghiswealthinamannernotsusceptibleofremoval。He，indeed，ifhefeelssafeonhisthrone，andreasonablysecureoftransmittingittohisdescendants，sometimesindulgesatastefordurableedifices，andproducesthePyramids，ortheTajMehalandtheMausoleumatSekundra。Therudemanufacturesdestinedforthewantsofthecultivatorsareworkedupbyvillageartisans，whoareremuneratedbylandgiventothemrent—freetocultivate，orbyfeespaidtotheminkindfromsuchshareofthecropasislefttothevillagersbythegovernment。Thisstateofsociety，however，isnotdestituteofamercantileclass;composedoftwodivisions，graindealersandmoneydealers。Thegraindealersdonotusuallybuygrainfromtheproducers，butfromtheagentsofgovernment，who，receivingtherevenueinkind，aregladtodevolveuponothersthebusinessofconveyingittotheplaceswheretheprince，hischiefcivilandmilitaryofficers，thebulkofhistroops，andtheartisanswhosupplythewantsofthesevariouspersons，areassembled。Themoneydealerslendtotheunfortunatecultivators，whenruinedbybadseasonsorfiscalexactions，themeansofsupportinglifeandcontinuingtheircultivation，andarerepaidwithenormousinterestatthenextharvest;or，onalargerscale，theylendtothegovernment，ortothosetowhomithasgrantedaportionoftherevenue，andareindemnifiedbyassignmentsontherevenuecollectors，orbyhavingcertaindistrictsputintotheirpossession，thattheymaypaythemselvesfromtherevenues;toenablethemtodowhich，agreatportionofthepowersofgovernmentareusuallymadeoversimultaneously，tobeexercisedbythemuntileitherthedistrictsareredeemed，ortheirreceiptshaveliquidatedthedebt。Thus，thecommercialoperationsofboththeseclassesofdealerstakepLaceprincipallyuponthatpartoftheproduceofthecountrywhichformstherevenueofthegovernment。Fromthatrevenuetheircapitalisperiodicallyreplacedwithaprofit，andthatisalsothesourcefromwhichtheiroriginalfundshavealmostalwaysbeenderived。Such，initsgeneralfeatures，istheeconomicalconditionofmostofthecountriesofAsia，asithasbeenfrombeyondthecommencementofauthentichistory，andisstill，wherevernotdisturbedbyforeigninfluences。
　　IntheagriculturalcommunitiesofancientEuropewhoseearlyconditionisbestknowntous，thecourseofthingswasdifferent。These，attheirorigin，weremostlysmalltown—communities，atthefirstplantationofwhich，inanunoccupiedcountry，orinonefromwhichtheformerinhabitantshadbeenexpelled，thelandwhichwastakenpossessionofwasregularlydivided，inequaloringraduatedallotments，amongthefamiliescomposingthecommunity。Insomecases，insteadofatowntherewasaconfederationoftowns，occupiedbypeopleofthesamereputedrace，andwhoweresupposedtohavesettledinthecountryaboutthesametime。Eachfamilyproduceditsownfoodandthematerialsofitsclothing，whichwereworkedupwithinitself，usuallybythewomenofthefamily，intothecoarsefabricswithwhichtheagewascontented。Taxestherewerenone，astherewereeithernopaidofficersofgovernment，oriftherewere，theirpaymenthadbeenprovidedforbyareservedportionofland，cultivatedbyslavesonaccountofthestate;
　　andthearmyconsistedofthebodyofcitizens。Thewholeproduceofthesoil，therefore，belonged，withoutdeduction，tothefamilywhichcultivatedit。Solongastheprocessofeventspermittedthisdispositionofpropertytolast，thestateofsocietywas，forthemajorityofthefreecultivators，probablynotanundesirableone;andunderit，insomecases，theadvanceofmankindinintellectualculturewasextraordinarilyrapidandbrilliant。Thismoreespeciallyhappenedwhere，alongwithadvantageouscircumstancesofraceandclimate，andnodoubtwithmanyfavourableaccidentsofwhichalltraceisnowlost，wascombinedtheadvantageofapositionontheshoresofagreatinlandsea，theothercoastsofwhichwerealreadyoccupiedbysettledcommunities。Theknowledgewhichinsuchapositionwasacquiredofforeignproductions，andtheeasyaccessofforeignideasandinventions，madethechainofroutine，usuallysostronginarudepeople，hanglooselyonthesecommunities。Tospeakonlyoftheirindustrialdevelopment;theyearlyacquiredvarietyofwantsanddesires，whichstimulatedthemtoextractfromtheirownsoiltheutmostwhichtheyknewhowtomakeityield;andwhentheirsoilwassterile，oraftertheyhadreachedthelimitofitscapacity，theyoftenbecametraders，andboughtuptheproductionsofforeigncountries，toselltheminothercountrieswithaprofit。
　　Theduration，however，ofthisstateofthingswasfromthefirstprecarious。Theselittlecommunitieslivedinastateofalmostperpetualwar。Forthisthereweremanycauses。Intheruderandpurelyagriculturalcommunitiesafrequentcausewasthemerepressureoftheirincreasingpopulationupontheirlimitedland，aggravatedasthatpressuresooftenwasbydeficientharvests，intherudestateoftheiragriculture，anddependingastheydidforfooduponaverysmallextentofcountry。Ontheseoccasions，thecommunityoftenemigratedenmasse，orsentforthaswarmofitsyouth，toseek，swordinhand，forsomelesswarlikepeople，whocouldbeexpelledfromtheirland，ordetainedtocultivateitasslavesforthebenefitoftheirdespoilers。Whatthelessadvancedtribesdidfromnecessity，themoreprosperousdidfromambitionandthemilitaryspirit:andafteratimethewholeofthesecity—communitieswereeitherconquerorsorconquered。Insomecases，theconqueringstatecontenteditselfwithimposingatributeonthevanquished:
　　whobeing，inconsiderationofthatburden，freedfromtheexpenseandtroubleoftheirownmilitaryandnavalprotection，mightenjoyunderitaconsiderableshareofeconomicalprosperity，whiletheascendantcommunityobtainedasurplusofwealth，availableforpurposesofcollectiveluxuryormagnificence。FromsuchasurplustheParthenonandthePropylaeawerebuilt，thesculpturesofPheidiaspaidfor，andthefestivalscelebrated，forwhichAEschylus，Sophocles，Euripides，andAristophanescomposedtheirdramas。Butthisstateofpoliticalrelations，mostuseful，whileitlasted，totheprogressandultimateinterestofmankind，hadnottheelementsofdurability。Asmallconqueringcommunitywhichdoesnotincorporateitsconquests，alwaysendsbybeingconquered。
　　Universaldominion，therefore，atlastrestedwiththepeoplewhopractisedthisart——withtheRomans;who，whateverweretheirotherdevices，alwayseitherbeganorendedbytakingagreatpartofthelandtoenrichtheirownleadingcitizens，andbyadoptingintothegoverningbodytheprincipalpossessorsoftheremainder。ItisunnecessarytodwellonthemelancholyeconomomicalhistoryoftheRomanempire。Wheninequalityofwealthoncecommences，inacommunitynotconstantlyengagedinrepairingbyindustrytheinjuriesoffortune，itsadvancesaregigantic;thegreatmassesofwealthswallowupthesmaller。TheRomanempireultimatelybecamecoveredwiththevastlandedpossessionsofacomparativelyfewfamilies，forwhoseluxury，andstillmoreforwhoseostentation，themostcostlyproductswereraised，soilwereslaves，orsmalltenantsinawhilethecondition。cultivatorsofthesoilwereslaves，orsmalltenantsinnearlyservilecondition。FromthistimetheweaLthoftheempireprogressivelydeclined。Inthebeginning，thepublicrevenues，andtheresourcesofrichindividuals，sufficedatleasttocoverItalywithsplendidedifices，publicandprivate;
　　butatlengthsodwindledundertheenervatinginfluencesofmisgovernment，thatwhatremainedwasnotevensufficienttokeepthoseedificesfromdecay。Thestrengthandrichesofthecivilizedworldbecameinadequatetomakeheadagainstthenomadpopulationwhichskirteditsnorthernfrontier;theyoverrantheempire，andadifferentorderofthingssucceeded。
　　InthenewframeinwhichEuropeansocietywasnowcast，thepopulationofeachcountrymaybeconsideredascomposed，inunequalproportions，oftwodistinctnationsorraces，theconquerorsandtheconquered:thefirsttheproprietorsoftheland，thelatterthetillersofit。Thesetillerswereallowedtooccupythelandonconditionswhich，beingtheproductofforce，werealwaysonerous，butseldomtotheextentofabsoluteslavery。Already，inthelatertimesoftheRomanempire，predialslaveryhadextensivelytransformeditselfintoakindofserfdom:thecolonioftheRomanswererathervilleinsthanactualslaves;andtheincapacityanddistasteofthebarbarianconquerorsforpersonallysuperintendingindustrialoccupations，leftnoalternativebuttoallowtothecultivators，asanincentivetoexertion，somerealinterestinthesoil。If，forexample，theywerecompelledtolabour，threedaysintheweek，fortheirsuperior，theproduceoftheremainingdayswastheirown。Iftheywererequiredtosupplytheprovisionsofvarioussorts，ordinarilyneededfortheconsumptionofthecastle，andwereoftensubjecttorequisitionsinexcess，yetaftersupplyingthesedemandstheyweresufferedtodisposeattheirwillofwhateveradditionalproducetheycouldraise。UnderthissystemduringtheMiddleAgesitwasnotimpossible，nomorethaninmodernRussia（where，uptotherecentmeasureofemancipation，thesamesystemstillessentiallyprevailed），forserfstoacquireproperty;andinfact，theiraccumulationsaretheprimitivesourceofthewealthofmodernEurope。
　　Inthatageofviolenceanddisorder，thefirstusemadebyaserfofanysmallprovisionwhichhehadbeenabletoaccumulate，wastobuyhisfreedomandwithdrawhimselftosometownorfortifiedvillage，whichhadremainedundestroyedfromthetimeoftheRomandominion;or，withoutbuyinghisfreedom，toabscondthither。Inthatplaceofrefuge，surroundedbyothersofhisownclass。heattemptedtolive，securedinsomemeasurefromtheoutragesandexactionsofthewarriorcaste，byhisownprowessandthatofhisfellows。Theseemancipatedserfsmostlybecameartificers;andlivedbyexchangingtheproduceoftheirindustryforthesurplusfoodandmaterialwhichthesoilyieldedtoitsfeudalproprietors。ThisgaverisetoasortofEuropeancounterpartoftheeconomicalconditionofAsiaticcountries;
　　exceptthat，inlieuofasinglemonarchandafluctuatingbodyoffavouritesandemploy閟，therewasanumerousandinaconsiderabledegreefixedclassofgreatlandholders;exhibitingfarlesssplendour，becauseindividuallydisposingofamuchsmallersurplusproduce，andforalongtimeexpendingthechiefpartofitinmaintainingthebodyofretainerswhomthewarlikehabitsofsociety，andthelittleprotectionaffordedbygovernment，renderedindispensabletotheirsafety。Thegreaterstability，thefixityofpersonalposition，whichthisstateofsocietyafforded，incomparisonwiththeAsiaticpolitytowhichiteconomicallycorresponded，wasonemainreasonwhyitwasalsofoundmorefavourabletoimprovement。Fromthistimetheeconomicaladvancementofsocietyhasnotbeenfurtherinterrupted。Securityofpersonandpropertygrewslowly，butsteadily。theartsoflifemadeconstantprogress;plunderceasedtobetheprincipalsourceofaccumulation;andfeudalEuroperipenedintocommercialandmanufacturingEurope。InthelatterpartoftheMiddleAges，thetownsofItalyandFlanders，thefreecitiesofGermany，andsometownsofFranceandEngland，containedalargeandenergeticpopulationofartisans，andmanyrichburghers，whosewealthhadbeenacquiredbymanufacturingindustry，orbytradingintheproduceofsuchindustry。TheCommonsofEngland，theTiers—EtatofFrance，thebourgeoisieoftheContinentgenerally，arethedescendantsofthisclass。Asthesewereasavingclass，whiletheposterityofthefeudalaristocracywereasquanderingclass，theformerbydegreessubstitutedthemselvesforthelatterastheownersofagreatproportionoftheland。Thisnaturaltendencywasinsomecasesretardedbylawscontrivedforthepurposeofdetainingthelandinthefamiliesofitsexistingpossessors，inothercasesacceleratedbypoliticalrevolutions。Gradually，thoughmoreslowly，theimmediatecultivatorsofthesoil，inallthemorecivilizedcountries，ceasedtobeinaservileorsemi—servilestate:thoughthelegalposition，aswellastheeconomicalconditionattainedbythem，varyextremelyinthedifferentnationsofEurope，andinthegreatcommunitieswhichhavebeenfoundedbeyondtheAtlanticbythedescendantsofEuropeans。
　　Theworldnowcontainsseveralextensiveregions，providedwiththevariousingredientsofwealthinadegreeofabundanceofwhichformerageshadnoteventheidea。Withoutcompulsorylabour，anenormousmassoffoodisannuaLlyextractedfromthesoil，andmaintains，besidestheactualproducers，anequal，sometimesagreaternumberoflabourers，occupiedinproducingconveniencesandluxuriesofinnumerablekinds，orintransportingthemfromplacetoplace;alsoamultitudeofpersonsemployedindirectingandsuperintendingthesevariouslabours;andoverandaboveallthese，aclassmorenumerousthaninthemostluxuriousancientsocieties，ofpersonswhoseoccupationsareofakindnotdirectlyproductive，andofpersonswhohavenooccupationatall。Thefoodthusraisedsupportsafarlargerpopulationthanhadeverexisted（atleastinthesameregions）onanequalspaceofground;andsupportsthemwithcertainty，exemptfromthoseperiodicallyrecurringfaminessoabundantintheearlyhistoryofEurope，andinOrientalcountriesevennownotunfrequent。Besidesthisgreatincreaseinthequantityoffood，ithasgreatlyimprovedinqualityandvariety;whileconveniencesandluxuries，otherthanfood，arenolongerlimitedtoasmallandopulentclass，butdescend，ingreatabundance，throughmanywideningstratainsociety。Thecollectiveresourcesofoneofthesecommunities，whenitchoosestoputthemforthforanyunexpectedpurpose;itsabilitytomaintainfleetsandarmies，toexecutepublicworks，eitherusefulorornamental，toperformnationalactsofbeneficenceliketheransomoftheWestIndiaslaves;tofoundcolonies，tohaveitspeopletaught，todoanythinginshortwhichrequiresexpense，andtodoitwithnosacrificeofthenecessariesoreventhesubstantialcomfortsofitsinhabitants，aresuchastheworldneversawbefore。
　　Butinalltheseparticulars，characteristicofthemodernindustrialcommunities，thosecommunitiesdifferwidelyfromoneanother。Thoughaboundinginwealthascomparedwithformerages，theydosoinverydifferentdegrees。Evenofthecountrieswhicharejustlyaccountedtherichest，somehavemadeamorecompleteuseoftheirproductiveresources，andhaveobtained，relativelytotheirterritorialextent，amuchlargerproduce，thanothers;
　　nordotheydifferonlyinamountofwealth，butalsointherapidityofitsincrease。Thediversitiesinthedistributionofwealtharestillgreaterthanintheproduction。Therearegreatdifferencesintheconditionofthepoorestclassindifferentcountries;andintheproportionalnumbersandopulenceoftheclasseswhichareabovethepoorest。Theverynatureanddesignationoftheclasseswhooriginallyshareamongthemtheproduceofthesoil，varynotalittleindifferentplaces。Insome，thelandownersareaclassinthemselves，almostentirelyseparatefromtheclassesengagedinindustry。inothers，theproprietorofthelandisalmostuniversallyitscultivator，owningtheplough，andoftenhimselfholdingit。Wheretheproprietorhimselfdoesnotcultivate，thereissometimes，betweenhimandthelabourer，anintermediateagency，thatofthefarmer，whoadvancesthesubsistenceofthelabourers，suppliestheinstrumentsofproduction，andreceives，afterpayingarenttothelandowner，alltheproduce:inothercases，thelandlord，hispaidagents，andthelabourers，aretheonlysharers。
　　Manufactures，again，aresometimescarriedonbyscatteredindividuals，whoownorhirethetoolsormachinerytheyrequire，andemploylittlelabourbesidesthatoftheirownfamily;inothercases，bylargenumbersworkingtogetherinonebuilding，withexpensiveandcomplexmachineryownedbyrichmanufacturers。
　　Thesamedifferenceexistsintheoperationsoftrade。Thewholesaleoperationsindeedareeverywherecarriedonbylargecapitals，wheresuchexist;buttheretaildealings，whichcollectivelyoccupyaverygreatamountofcapital，aresometimesconductedinsmallshops，chieflybythepersonalexertionsofthedealersthemselves，withtheirfamilies，andperhapsanapprenticeortwo;andsometimesinlargeestablishments，ofwhichthefundsaresuppliedbyawealthyindividualorassociation，andtheagencyisthatofnumeroussalariedshopmenorshopwomen。Besidesthesedifferencesintheeconomicalphenomenapresentedbydifferentpartsofwhatisusuallycalledthecivilizedworld，allthoseearlierstateswhichwepreviouslypassedinreview，havecontinuedinsomepartorotheroftheworld，downtoourowntime。HuntingcommunitiesstillexistinAmerica，nomadicinArabiaandthesteppesofNorthernAsia;
　　Orientalsocietyisinessentialswhatithasalwaysbeen;thegreatempireofRussiaisevennow，inmanyrespects，thescarcelymodifiedimageoffeudalEurope。Everyoneofthegreattypesofhumansociety，downtothatoftheEsquimauxorPatagonians，isstillextant。
　　Theseremarkabledifferencesinthestateofdifferentportionsofthehumanrace，withregardtotheproductionanddistributionofwealth，must，likeallotherphenomena，dependoncauses。Anditisnotasufficientexplanationtoascribethemexclusivelytothedegreesofknowledgepossessedatdifferenttimesandplaces，ofthelawsofnatureandthephysicalartsoflife。Manyothercausesco—operate;andthatveryprogressandunequaldistributionofphysicalknowledgearepartlytheeffects，aswellaspartlythecauses，ofthestateoftheproductionanddistributionofwealth。