Noremediesforlowwageshavethesmallestchanceofbeing
efficacious，whichdonotoperateonandthroughthemindsand
habitsofthepeople。Whiletheseareunaffected，any
contrivance，evenifsuccessful，fortemporarilyimprovingthe
conditionoftheverypoor，wouldbutletslipthereinsbywhich
populationwaspreviouslycurbed;andcouldonly，therefore，
continuetoproduceitseffect，if，bythewhipandspurof
taxation，capitalwerecompelledtofollowatanequally
acceleratedpace。Butthisprocesscouldnotpossiblycontinue
forlongtogether，andwheneveritstopped，itwouldleavethe
countrywithanincreasednumberofthepoorestclass，anda
diminishedproportionofallexceptthepoorest，or，ifit
continuedlongenough，withnoneatall。For"tothiscomplexion
mustcomeatlast"allsocialarrangements，whichremovethe
naturalcheckstopopulationwithoutsubstitutinganyothers。
NOTES:
1。SeetheEvidenceonthesubjectofAllotments，collectedby
tehCommissionersofPoorLawEnquiry。
2。Laing’sNotesofaTraveller，p。456。
3。SeeThorntononOver—Population，ch。viii。
ThePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy
byJohnStuartMill
Book2
Chapter13
TheRemediesforLowWagesFurtherConsidered
1。Bywhatmeans，then，ispovertytobecontendedagainst？
Howistheeviloflowwagestoberemedied？Iftheexpedients
usuallyrecommendedforthepurposearenotadaptedtoit，canno
othersbethoughtof？Istheproblemincapableofsolution？Can
politicaleconomydonothing，butonlyobjecttoeverything，and
demonstratethatnothingcanbedone？
Ifthiswereso，politicaleconomymighthaveaneedful，but
wouldhaveamelancholy，andathanklesstask。Ifthebulkofthe
humanracearealwaystoremainasatpresent，slavestotoilin
whichtheyhavenointerest，andthereforefeelnointerest——
drudgingfromearlymorningtilllateatnightforbare
necessaries，andwithalltheintellectualandmoraldeficiencies
whichthatimplies——withoutresourceseitherinmindor
feelings——untaught，fortheycannotbebettertaughtthanfed;
selfish，foralltheirthoughtsarerequiredforthemselves;
withoutinterestsorsentimentsascitizensandmembersof
society，andwithasenseofinjusticeranklingintheirminds，
equallyforwhattheyhavenot，andforwhatothershave;Iknow
notwhatthereiswhichshouldmakeapersonwithanycapacityof
reason，concernhimselfaboutthedestiniesofthehumanrace。
Therewouldbenowisdomforanyonebutinextractingfromlife，
withEpicureanindifference，asmuchpersonalsatisfactionto
himselfandthosewithwhomhesympathies，asitcanyield
withoutinjurytoanyone，andlettingtheunmeaningbustleof
so—calledcivilizedexistencerollbyunheeded。Butthereisno
groundforsuchaviewofhumanaffairs。Poverty，likemost
socialevils，existsbecausemenfollowtheirbruteinstincts
withoutdueconsideration。Butsocietyispossible，precisely
becausemanisnotnecessarilyabrute。Civilizationineveryone
ofitsaspectsisastruggleagainsttheanimalinstincts。Over
someevenofthestrongestofthem，ithasshownitselfcapable
ofacquiringabundantcontrol。Ithasartificializedlarge
portionsofmankindtosuchanextent，thatofmanyoftheirmost
naturalinclinationstheyhavescarcelyavestigeora
remembranceleft。Ifithasnotbroughttheinstinctof
populationunderasmuchrestraintasisneedful，wemust
rememberthatithasneverseriouslytried。Whateffortsithas
made，havemostlybeeninthecontrarydirection。Religion，
morality，andstatesmanshiphaveviedwithoneanotherin
incitementstomarriage，andtothemultiplicationofthe
species，soitbebutinwedlock。Religionhasnotevenyet
discontinueditsencouragements。TheRomanCatholicclergy（of
anyotherclergyitisunnecessarytospeak，sincenootherhave
anyconsiderableinfluenceoverthepoorerclasses）everywhere
thinkittheirdutytopromotemarriage，inordertoprevent
fornication。Thereisstillinmanymindsastrongreligious
prejudiceagainstthetruedoctrine。Therich，providedthe
consequencesdonottouchthemselves，thinkitimpugnsthewisdom
ofProvidencetosupposethatmiserycanresultfromthe
operationofanaturalpropensity……thepoorthinkthat"God
neversendsmouthsbuthesendsmeat。"Noonewouldguessfrom
thelanguageofeither，thatmanhadanyvoiceorchoiceinthe
matter。Socompleteistheconfusionofideasonthewhole
subject;owinginagreatdegreetothemysteryinwhichitis
shroudedbyaspuriousdelicacy，whichpreferthatrightand
wrongshouldbemismeasuredandconfoundedononeofthesubjects
mostmomentoustohumanwelfare，ratherthanthatthesubjectbe
freelyspokenofanddiscussed。Peoplearelittleawareofthe
costtomankindofthisscrupulosityofspeech。Thediseasesof
societycan，nomorethancorporalmaladies，hepreventedor
curedwithoutbeingspokenaboutinplainlanguage。All
experienceshowsthatthemassofmankindneverjudgeofmoral
questionsforthemselves，neverseeanythingtoberightorwrong
untiltheyhavebeenfrequentlytoldit;andwhotellsthemthat
theyhaveanydutiesinthematterinquestion，whiletheykeep
withinmatrimoniallimits？Whomeetswiththesmallest
condemnation，orrather，whodoesnotmeetwithsympathyand
benevolence，foranyamountofevilwhichhemayhavebrought
uponhimselfandthosedependentonhim，bythisspeciesof
incontinence？Whileamanwhoisintemperateindrink，is
discountenancedanddespisedbyallwhoprofesstobemoral
people，itisoneofthechiefgroundsmadeuseofinappealsto
thebenevolent，thattheapplicanthasalargefamilyandis
unabletomaintainthem。（1*）
Onecannotwonderthatsilenceonthisgreatdepartmentof
humandutyshouldproduceunconsciousnessofmoralobligations，
whenitproducesoblivionofphysicalfacts。Thatitispossible
todelaymarriage，andtoliveinabstinencewhileunmarried，
mostpeoplearewillingto，allow。butwhenpersonsareonce
married，theidea，inthiscountry，neverseemstoenterany
one’smindthathavingornothavingafamily，orthenumberof
whichitshallconsist，isamenabletotheirowncontrol。One
wouldimagethatchildrenwereraineddownuponmarriedpeople，
directfromheaven，withouttheirbeingartorpartinthe
matter;thatitwasreally，asthecommonphraseshaveit，God’s
will，andnottheirown，whichdecidedthenumbersoftheir
offspring。LetusseewhatisaContinentalphilosopher’sopinion
onthispoint;amanamongthemostbenevolentofhistime，and
thehappinessofwhosemarriedlifehasbeencelebrated。
"Lorsquedesprejugesdangereux，"saysSismondi，（2*）"nesont
pointaccredites，lorsqu’unemoralecontraire？nosvraisdevoirs
enverslesautresetsurtoutenverslescreaturesquinous
doiventlavie，n’estpointenseigneeaunomdel’autoritela
plussacree，aucunhommesagenesemarieavantdesetrouver
dansuneconditionquiluidonneunmoyenassuredevivre;aucun
p鑢edefamillen’aplusd’enfansqu’iln’enpeutconvenablement
elever。Cederniercompte？bondroitquesesenfansdevrontse
contenterdusortdanslequelilavecu;aussidoit—ildesirer
quelagenerationnaissanterepresenteexactementcellequis’en
va;qu’unfilsetunefillearrives？l’鈍enubileremplacentson
p鑢eetsam鑢e;quelesenfansdesesenfansleremplacent？son
touravecsafemme;quesafilletrouvedansuneautremaison
precisementlesortqu’ildonnera？lafilled’uneautremaison
danslasienne，etquelerevenuquisuffisaitauxp鑢essuffise
auxenfans。"Inacountincreasinginwealth，someincreaseof
numberswouldbeadmissible，butthatisaquestionofdetail，
notofprinciple。"Unefoisquecettefamilleestformee，la
justiceetl’humaniteexigentqu’ils’imposelam阭econtrainte？
laquellesesoumettentlescelibataires。Lorsqu’onvoitcombien
estpetit，entoutpays，lenombredesenfansnaturels，ondoit
reconna顃requecettecontrainteestsuffisammentefficace。Dans
unpayso？lapopulationnepeutpass’accro顃re，oudumoins
danslequelsonprogr鑣doit阾resilentqu’ilsoit？peine
perceptible，quandiln’yapointdeplacesnouvellespourde
nouveauxetablissemens，unp鑢equiahuitenfansdoitcompter，
ouquesixdesesenfansmourrontenbas鈍e，ouquetroisdeses
contemporainsettroisdesescontemporaines，etdansla
generationsuivante，troisdesesfilsettroisdesesfilles，ne
semarierontpas？causedelui。"
2。Thosewhothinkithopelessthatthelabouringclasses
shouldbeinducedtopractiseasufficientdegreeofprudencein
regardtotheincreaseoftheirfamilies，becausetheyhave
hithertostoptshortofthatpoint，showaninabilitytoestimate
theordinaryprinciplesofhumanaction。Nothingmorewould
probablybenecessarytosecurethatresult，thananopinion
generallydiffusedthatitwasdesirable。Asamoralprinciple，
suchanopinionhasneveryetexistedinanycountry:itis
curiousthatitdoesnotsoexistincountriesinwhich，fromthe
spontaneousoperationofindividualforethought，populationis，
comparativelyspeaking，efficientlyrepressed。Whatispractised
asprudenceisstillnotrecognisedasduty。thetalkersand
writersaremostlyontheotherside，eveninFrance，wherea
sentimentalhorrorofMalthusisalmostasrifeasinthis
country。Manycausesmaybeassigned，besidesthemoderndateof
thedoctrine，foritsnothavingyetgainedpossessionofthe
generalmind。Itstruthhas，insomerespects，beenits
detriment。Onemaybepermittedtodoubtwhether，exceptamong
thepoorthemselves（forwhoseprejudicesonthissubjectthere
isnodifficultyinaccounting）therehaseveryetbeen，inany
classofsociety，asincereandearnestdesirethatwagesshould
behigh。Therehasbeenplentyofdesiretokeepdownthe
poor—rate;but，thatdone，peoplehavebeenverywillingthatthe
workingclassesshouldbeilloff。Nearlyallwhoarenot
labourersthemselves，areemployersoflabour，andarenotsorry
togetthecommoditycheap。Itisafact，thatevenBoardsof
Guardians，whoaresupposedtobeofficialapostlesof
anti—populationdoctrines，willseldomhearpatientlyofanything
whichtheyarepleasedtodesignateasMalthusianism。Boardsof
Guardiansinruraldistricts，principallyconsistoffarmers，and
farmers，itiswellknown，ingeneraldislikeevenallotments，as
makingthelabourers"tooindependent。"Fromthegentry，whoare
inlessimmediatecontactandcollisionofinterestwiththe
labourers，betterthingsmightbeexpected，andthegentryof
Englandareusuallycharitable。Butcharitablepeoplehavehuman
infirmities，andwould，veryoften，besecretlynotalittle
dissatisfiedifnooneneededtheircharity:itisfromthemone
oftenesthearsthebasedoctrine，thatGodhasdecreedthere
shallalwaysbepoor。Whenoneaddstothis，thatnearlyevery
personwhohashadinhimanyactivespringofexertionfora
socialobject，hashadsomefavouritereformtoeffectwhichhe
thoughttheadmissionofthisgreatprinciplewouldthrowinto
theshade;hashadcornlawstorepeal，ortaxationtoreduce，or
smallnotestoissue，orthechartertocarry，orthechurchto
reviveorabolish，orthearistocracytopulldown，andlooked
uponeveryoneasanenemywhothoughtanythingimportantexcept
hisobject;itisscarcelywonderfulthatsincethepopulation
doctrinewasfirstpromulgated，nine—tenthsofthetalkhas
alwaysbeenagainstit，andtheremainingtenthonlyaudibleat
intervals;andthatithasnotyetpenetratedfaramongthosewho
mightbeexpectedtobetheleastwillingrecipientsofit，the
labourersthemselves。
Butletustrytoimaginewhatwouldhappeniftheidea
becamegeneralamongthelabouringclass，thatthecompetitionof
toogreatnumberswasthespecialcauseoftheirpoverty;sothat
everylabourerlooked（withSismondi）uponeveryotherwhohad
morethanthenumberofchildrenwhichthecircumstancesof
societyallowedtoeach，asdoinghimawrong——asfillingup
theplacewhichhewasentitledtoshare。Anyonewhosupposes
thatthisstateofopinionwouldnothaveagreateffecton
conduct，mustbeprofoundlyignorantofhumannature;cannever
haveconsideredhowlargeaportionofthemotiveswhichinduce
thegeneralityofmentotakecareevenoftheirowninterest，is
derivedfromregardforopinion——fromtheexpectationofbeing
dislikedordespisedfornotdoingit。Intheparticularcasein
question，itisnottoomuchtosaythatover—indulgenceisas
muchcausedbythestimulusofopinionasbythemereanimal
propensity;sinceopinionuniversally，andespeciallyamongthe
mostuneducatedclasses，hasconnectedideasofspiritandpower
withthestrengthoftheinstinct，andofinferioritywithits
moderationorabsence;aperversionofsentimentcausedbyits
beingthemeans，andthestamp，ofadominionexercisedover
otherhumanbeing。Theeffectwouldbegreatofmerelyremoving
thisfactitiousstimulus;andwhenonceopinionshallhaveturned
itselfintoanadversedirection，arevolutionwillsoontake
placeinthisdepartmentofhumanconduct。Weareoftentoldthat
themostthoroughperceptionofthedependenceofwageson
populationwillnotinfluencetheconductofalabouringman，
becauseitisnotthechildrenhehimselfcanhavethatwill
produceanyeffectingenerallydepressingthelabourmarket。
True:anditisalsotrue，thatonesoldier’srunningawaywill
notlosethebattle;accordinglyitisnotthatconsideration
whichkeepseachsoldierinhisrank:itisthedisgracewhich
naturallyandinevitablyattendsonconductbyanyone
individual，whichifpursuedbyamajority，everybodycansee
wouldbefatal。Menareseldomfoundtobravethegeneralopinion
oftheirclass，unlesssupportedeitherbysomeprinciplehigher
thanregardforopinion，orbysomestrongbodyofopinion
elsewhere。
Itmustbeborneinmindalso，thattheopinionherein
question，assoonasitattainedanyprevalence，wouldhave
powerfulauxiliariesinthegreatmajorityofwomen。Itisseldom
bythechoiceofthewifethatfamiliesaretoonumerous;onher
devolves（alongwithallthephysicalsufferingandatleasta
fullshareoftheprivations）thewholeoftheintolerable
domesticdrudgeryresultingfromtheexcess。Toberelievedfrom
itwouldbehailedasablessingbymultitudesofwomenwhonow
neverventuretourgesuchaclaim，butwhowouldurgeit，if
supportedbythemoralfeelingsofthecommunity。Amongthe
barbarismswhichlawandmoralshavenotyetceasedtosanction，
themostdisgustingsurelyis，thatanyhumanbeingshouldbe
permittedtoconsiderhimselfashavingarighttothepersonof
another。
Iftheopinionwereoncegenerallyestablishedamongthe
labouringclassthattheirwelfarerequiredadueregulationof
thenumbersoffamilies，therespectableandwell—conductedof
thebodywouldconformtotheprescription，andonlythosewould
exemptthemselvesfromit，whowereinthehabitofmakinglight
ofsocialobligationsgenerally;andtherewouldbethenan
evidentjustificationforconvertingthemoralobligationagainst
bringingchildrenintotheworldwhoareaburthentothe
community，intoalegalone;justasinmanyothercasesofthe
progressofopinion，thelawendsbyenforcingagainst
recalcitrantminorities，obligationswhichtobeusefulmustbe
general，andwhich，fromasenseoftheirutility，alarge
majorityhavevoluntarilyconsentedtotakeuponthemselves。
Therewouldbenoneed，however，oflegalsanctions，ifwomen
wereadmitted，asonallothergroundstheyhavetheclearest
titletobe，tothesamerightsofcitizenshipwithmen。Letthem
ceasetobeconfinedbycustomtoonephysicalfunctionastheir
meansoflivingandtheirsourceofinfluence，andtheywould
haveforthefirsttimeanequalvoicewithmeninwhatconcerns
thatfunction:andofalltheimprovementsinreserveformankind
whichitisnowpossibletoforesee，nonemightbeexpectedtobe
sofertileasthisinalmosteverykindofmoralandsocial
benefit。
Itremainstoconsiderwhatchancethereisthatopinionsand
feelings，groundedonthelawofthedependenceofwageson
population，willariseamongthelabouringclasses;andbywhat
meanssuchopinionsandfeelingscanbecalledforth。Before
consideringthegroundsofhopeonthissubject，ahopewhich
manypersons，nodoubt，willbeready，withoutconsideration，to
pronouncechimerical，Iwillremark，thatunlessasatisfactory
answercanbemadetothesetwoquestions，theindustrialsystem
prevailinginthiscountry，andregardedbymanywritersasthe
neplusultraofcivilization——thedependenceofthewhole
labouringclassofthecommunityonthewagesofhiredlabour，is
irrevocablycondemned。Thequestionweareconsideringis，
whether，ofthisstateofthings，overpopulationandadegraded
conditionofthelabouringclassaretheinevitableconsequence。
Ifaprudentregulationofpopulationbenotreconcilablewith
thesystemofhiredlabour，thesystemisanuisance，andthe
grandobjectofeconomicalstatesmanshipshouldbe（bywhatever
arrangementsofproperty，andalterationsinthemodesof
applyingindustry），tobringthelabouringpeopleunderthe
influenceofstrongerandmoreobviousinducementstothiskind
ofprudence，thantherelationofworkmenandemployerscan
afford。
Butthereexistsnosuchincompatibility。Thecausesof
povertyarenotsoobviousatfirstsighttoapopulationof
hiredlabourers，astheyaretooneofproprietors，orasthey
wouldbetoasocialistcommunity。Theyare，however，innoway
mysterious。Thedependenceofwagesonthenumberofthe
competitorsforemployment，issofarfromhardofcomprehension，
orunintelligibletothelabouringclasses，thatbygreatbodies
ofthemitisalreadyrecognisedandhabituallyactedon。Itis
familiartoallTradesUnions:everysuccessfulcombinationto
keepupwages，owesitssuccesstocontrivancesforrestricting
thenumberofthecompetitors;allskilledtradesareanxiousto
keepdowntheirownnumbers，andmanyimpose，orendeavourto
impose，asaconditionuponemployers，thattheyshallnottake
morethanaprescribednumberofapprentices。Thereis，of
course，agreatdifferencebetweenlimitingtheirnumbersby
excludingotherpeople，anddoingthesamethingbyarestraint
imposedonthemselves:buttheoneasmuchastheothershowsa
clearperceptionoftherelationbetweentheirnumbersandtheir
remuneration。Theprincipleisunderstoodinitsapplicationto
anyoneemployment，butnottothegeneralmassofemployment。
Forthisthereareseveralreasons:first，theoperationof
causesismoreeasilyanddistinctlyseeninthemore
circumscribedfield;secondly，skilledartizansareamore
intelligentclassthan，ordinarymanuallabourers:andthehabit
ofconcert，andofpassinginreviewtheirgeneralconditionasa
trade，keepsupabetterunderstandingoftheircollective
interests:thirdlyandlastly，theyarethemostprovident，
becausetheyarethebestoff，andhavethemosttopreserve。
What，however，isclearlyperceivedandadmittedinparticular
instances，itcannotbehopelesstoseeunderstoodand
acknowledgedasageneraltruth。Itsrecognition，atleastin
theory，seemsathingwhichmustnecessarilyandimmediatelycome
topass，whenthemindsofthelabouringclassesbecomecapable
oftakinganyrationalviewoftheirownaggregatecondition。Of
thisthegreatmajorityofthemhaveuntilnowbeenincapable，
eitherfromtheuncultivatedstateoftheirintelligence，orfrom
poverty，whichleavingthemneitherthefearofworse，northe
smallesthopeofbetter，makesthemcarelessoftheconsequences
oftheiractions，andwithoutthoughtforthefuture。
3。Forthepurposethereforeofalteringthehabitsofthe
labouringpeople，thereisneedofatwofoldaction，directed
simultaneouslyupontheirintelligenceandtheirpoverty。An
effectivenationaleducationofthechildrenofthelabouring
class，isthefirstthingneedful:and，coincidentlywiththis，a
systemofmeasureswhichshall（astheRevolutiondidinFrance）
extinguishextremepovertyforonewholegeneration。
Thisisnottheplacefordiscussing，eveninthemost
generalmanner，eithertheprinciplesorthemachineryof
nationaleducation。Butitistobehopedthatopiniononthe
subjectisadvancing，andthataneducationofmerewordswould
notnowbedeemedsufficient，slowasourprogressistowards
providinganythingbetterevenfortheclassestowhomsociety
professestogivetheverybesteducationitcandevise。Without
enteringintodisputablepoints，itmaybeassertedwithout
scruple，thattheaimofallintellectualtrainingforthemass
ofthepeople，shouldbetocultivatecommonsense;toqualify
themforformingasoundpracticaljudgmentofthecircumstances
bywhichtheyaresurrounded。Whatever，intheintellectual
department，canbesuperaddedtothis，ischieflyornamental;
whilethisistheindispensablegroundworkonwhicheducation
mustrest。Letthisobjectbeacknowledgedandkeptinviewas
thethingtobefirstaimedat，andtherewillbelittle
difficultyindecidingeitherwhattoteach，orinwhatmannerto
teachit。
Aneducationdirectedtodiffusegoodsenseamongthepeople，
withsuchknowledgeaswouldqualifythemtojudgeofthe
tendenciesoftheiractions，wouldbecertain，evenwithoutany
directinculcation，toraiseupapublicopinionbywhich
intemperanceandimprovidenceofeverykindwouldbeheld
discreditable，andtheimprovidencewhichoverstocksthelabour
marketwouldbeseverelycondemned，asanoffenceagainstthe
commonweal。Butthoughthesufficiencyofsuchastateof
opinion，supposingitformed，tokeeptheincreaseofpopulation
withinproperlimits，cannot，Ithink，bedoubted;yet，forthe
formationoftheopinion，itwouldnotdototrusttoeducation
alone。Educationisnotcompatiblewithextremepoverty。Itis
impossibleeffectuallytoteachanindigentpopulation。Anditis
difficulttomakethosefeelthevalueofcomfortwhohavenever
enjoyedit，orthoseappreciatethewretchednessofaprecarious
subsistence，whohavebeenmaderecklessbyalwayslivingfrom
handtomouth。Individualsoftenstruggleupwardsintoa
conditionofease;buttheutmostthatcanbeexpectedfroma
wholepeopleistomaintainthemselvesinit;andimprovementin
thehabitsandrequirementsofthemassofunskilled
day—labourerswillbedifficultandtardy，unlessmeanscanbe
contrivedofraisingtheentirebodytoastateoftolerable
comfort，andmaintainingtheminituntilanewgenerationgrows
up。
Towardseffectingthisobjecttherearetworesources
available，withoutwrongtoanyone，withoutanyofthe
liabilitiesofmischiefattendantonvoluntaryorlegalcharity，
andnotonlywithoutweakening，butonthecontrary
strengthening，everyincentivetoindustry，andeverymotiveto
forethought。
4。Thefirstis，agreatnationalmeasureofcolonization。I
mean，agrantofpublicmoney，sufficienttoremoveatonce，and
establishinthecolonies，aconsiderablefractionofthe
youthfulagriculturalpopulation。Bygivingthepreference，as
Mr。Wakefieldproposes，toyoungcouples，orwhenthesecannotbe
obtained，tofamilieswithchildrennearlygrownup，the
expenditurewouldbemadetogothefarthestpossibletowards
accomplishingtheend，whilethecolonieswouldbesuppliedwith
thegreatestamountofwhatisthereindeficiencyandherein
superfluity，presentandprospectivelabour。Ithasbeenshownby
others，andthegroundsoftheopinionwillbeexhibitedina
subsequentpartofthepresentwork，thatcolonizationonan
adequatescalemightbesoconductedastocostthecountry
nothing，ornothingthatwouldnotbecertainlyrepaid;andthat
thefundsrequired，evenbywayofadvance，wouldnotbedrawn
fromthecapitalemployedinmaintaininglabour，butfromthat
surpluswhichcannotfindemploymentatsuchprofitas
constitutesanadequateremunerationfortheabstinenceofthe
possessor，andwhichisthereforesentabroadforinvestment，or
wastedathomeinrecklessspeculations。Thatportionofthe
incomeofthecountrywhichishabituallyineffectiveforany
purposeofbenefittothelabouringclass，wouldbearanydraught
whichitcouldbenecessarytomakeonitfortheamountof
emigrationwhichishereinview。
Thesecondresourcewouldhe，todevoteallcommonland，
hereafterbroughtintocultivation，toraisingaclassofsmall
proprietors。Ithaslongenoughbeenthepracticetotakethese
landsfrompublicuseforthemerepurposeofaddingtothe
domainsoftherich。Itistimethatwhatisleftofthemshould
beretainedasanestatesacredtothebenefitofthepoor。The
machineryforadministeringitalreadyexists，havingbeen
createdbytheGeneralInclosureAct。WhatIwouldpropose
（though，Iconfess，withsmallhopeofitsbeingsoonadopted）
is，thatinallfuturecasesinwhichcommonlandispermittedto
beenclosed，suchportionshouldfirstbesoldorassignedasis
sufficienttocompensatetheownersofmanorialorcommonrights，
andthattheremaindershouldbedividedintosectionsoffive
acresorthereabouts，tobeconferredinabsolutepropertyon
individualsofthelabouringclasswhowouldreclaimandbring
themintocultivationbytheirownlabour。Thepreferenceshould
hegiventosuchlabourers，andtherearemanyofthem，ashad
savedenoughtomaintainthemuntiltheirfirstcropwasgotin，
orwhosecharacterwassuchastoinducesomeresponsibleperson
toadvancetothemtherequisiteamountontheirpersonal
security。Thetools，themanure，andinsomecasesthe
subsistencealsomightbesuppliedbytheparish，orbythe
state;interestfortheadvance，attherateyieldedbythe
publicfunds，beinglaidonasaperpetualquit—rent，withpower
tothepeasanttoredeemitatanytimeforamoderatenumberof
years’purchase。Theselittlelandedestatesmight，ifitwere
thoughtnecessary，bemadeindivisiblebylaw;though，ifthe
planworkedinthemannerdesigned，Ishouldnotapprehendany
objectionabledegreeofsubdivision。Incaseofintestacy，andin
defaultofamicablearrangementamongtheheirs，theymightbe
boughtbygovernmentattheirvalue，andrecantedtosomeother
labourerwhowouldgivesecurityfortheprice。Thedesireto
possessoneofthesesmallpropertieswouldprobablybecome，as
ontheContinent，aninducementtoprudenceandeconomypervading
thewholelabouringpopulation;andthatgreatdesideratumamong
apeopleofhiredlabourerswouldbeprovided，anintermediate
classbetweenthemandtheiremployers;affordingthemthedouble
advantage，ofanobjectfortheirhopes，and，astherewouldbe
goodreasontoanticipate，anexamplefortheirimitation。
Itwould，however，beoflittleavailthateitherorbothof
thesemeasuresofreliefshouldbeadopted，unlessonsucha
scale，aswouldenablethewholebodyofhiredlabourers
remainingonthesoiltoobtainnotmerelyemployment，buta
largeadditiontothepresentwages——suchanadditionaswould
enablethemtoliveandbringuptheirchildreninadegreeof
comfortandindependencetowhichtheyhavehithertobeen
strangers。Whentheobjectistoraisethepermanentconditionof
apeople，smallmeansdonotmerelyproducesmalleffects，they
producenoeffectatall。Unlesscomfortcanbemadeashabitual
toawholegenerationasindigenceisnow，nothingis
accomplished;andfeeblehalf—measuresdobutfritteraway
resources，farbetterreserveduntiltheimprovementofpublic
opinionandofeducationshallraiseuppoliticianswhowillnot
thinkthatmerelybecauseaschemepromisesmuch，thepartof
statesmanshipistohavenothingtodowithit。
Ihavelefttheprecedingparagraphsastheywerewritten，
sincetheyremaintrueinprinciple，thoughitisnolonger
urgenttoapplythesespecificrecommendationstothepresent
stateofthiscountry。Theextraordinarycheapeningofthemeans
oftransport，whichisoneofthegreatscientificachievements
oftheage，andtheknowledgewhichnearlyallclassesofthe
peoplehavenowacquired，orareinthewayofacquiring，ofthe
conditionofthelabourmarketinremotepartsoftheworld，have
openedupaspontaneousemigrationfromtheseislandstothenew
countriesbeyondtheocean，whichdoesnottendtodiminish，but
toincrease;andwhich，withoutanynationalmeasureof
systematiccolonization，mayprovesufficienttoeffecta
materialriseofwagesinGreatBritain，asithasalreadydone
inIreland，andtomaintainthatriseunimpairedforoneormore
generations。Emigration，insteadofanoccasionalvent，is
becomingasteadyoutletforsuperfluousnumbers;andthisnew
factinmodernhistory，togetherwiththeflushofprosperity
occasionedbyfreetrade，havecantedtothisovercrowdedcountry
atemporarybreathing—time，capableofbeingemployedin
accomplishingthosemoralandintellectualimprovementsinall
classesofthepeople，theverypoorestincluded，whichwould
renderimprobableanyrelapseintotheover—peopledstate。
Whetherthisgoldenopportunitywillbeproperlyused，dependson
thewisdomofourcouncils;andwhateverdependsonthat，is
alwaysinahighdegreeprecarious。Thegroundsofhopeare，that
therehasbeennotimeinourhistorywhenmentalprogresshas
dependedsolittleongovernments，andsomuchonthegeneral
dispositionofthepeople;noneinwhichthespiritof
improvementhasextendedtosomanybranchesofhumanaffairsat
once，norinwhichallkindsofsuggestionstendingtothepublic
goodineverydepartment，fromthehumblestphysicaltothe
highestmoralorintellectual，wereheardwithsolittle
prejudice，andhadsogoodachanceofbecomingknownandbeing
fairlyconsidered。
NOTES:
1。Littleimprovementcanbeexpectedinmoralityuntilthe
producinglargefamiliesisregardedwiththesamefeelingsas
drunkennessoranyotherphysicalexcess。Butwhilethe
aristocracyandclergyareforemosttosettheexampleofthis
kindofincontinence，whatcanbeexpectedfromthepoor？
2。NouveauxPrincipes，liv，ch。5。
ThePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy
byJohnStuartMill
Book2
Chapter14
OftheDifferencesofWagesinDifferentEmployments
1。Intreatingofwages，wehavehithertoconfinedourselves
tothecauseswhichoperateonthemgenerally，andenmasse;the
lawswhichgoverntheremunerationofordinaryoraveragelabour:
withoutreferencetotheexistenceofdifferentkindsofwork
whicharehabituallypaidatdifferentrates，dependinginsome
degreeondifferentlaws。Wewillnowtakeintoconsideration
thesedifferences，andexamineinwhatmannertheyaffectorare
affectedbytheconclusionsalreadyestablished。
Awell—knownandverypopularchapterofAdamSmith（1*）
containsthebestexpositionyetgivenofthisportionofthe
subject。Icannotindeedthinkhistreatmentsocompleteand
exhaustiveasithassometimesbeenconsidered;butasfarasit
goes，hisanalysisistolerablysuccessful。
Thedifferences，hesays，arisepartlyfromthepolicyof
Europe，whichnowhereleavesthingsatperfectliberty，and
partly"fromcertaincircumstancesintheemploymentsthemselves，
whicheitherreally，oratleastintheimaginationsofmen，make
upforasmallpecuniarygaininsome，andcounterbalanceagreat
oneinothers。"Thesecircumstancesheconsiderstobe:"First，
theagreeablenessordisagreeablenessoftheemployments
themselves;secondly，theeasinessandcheapness，orthe
difficultyandexpenseoflearningthem;thirdly，theconstancy
orinconstancyofemploymentinthem;fourthly，thesmallor
greattrustwhichmustbereposedinthosewhoexercisethem;and
fifthly，theprobabilityorimprobabilityofsuccessinthem。"
Severalofthesepointshehasverycopiouslyillustrated:
thoughhisexamplesaresometimesdrawnfromastateoffactsnow
nolongerexisting。"Thewagesoflabourvarywiththeeaseor
hardship，thecleanlinessordirtiness，thehonourablenessor
dishonourablenessoftheemployment。Thus，inmostplaces，take
theyearround，ajourneymantailorearnslessthanajourneyman
weaver。Hisworkismucheasier。"Thingshavemuchaltered，asto
aweaver’sremuneration，sinceAdamSmith’stime;andtheartizan
whoseworkwasmoredifficultthanthatofatailor，cannever，I
think，havebeenthecommonweaver。"Ajourneymanweaverearns
lessthanajourneymansmith。Hisworkisnotalwayseasier，but
itismuchcleanlier。"Amoreprobableexplanationis，thatit
requireslessbodilystrength。"Ajourneymanblacksmith，though
anartificer，seldomearnssomuchintwelvehoursasacollier，
whoisonlyalabourer，doesineight。Hisworkisnotquiteso
dirty，islessdangerous，andiscarriedonindaylight，and
aboveground。Honourmakesagreatpartoftherewardofall
honourableprofessions。Inpointofpecuniarygain，allthings
considered，"theirrecompenseis，inhisopinion，belowthe
average。"Disgracehasthecontraryeffect。Thetradeofa
butcherisabrutalandanodiousbusiness;butitisinmost
placesmoreprofitablethanthegreaterpartofcommontrades。
Themostdetestableofallemployments，thatofpublic
executioner，is，inproportiontothequantityofworkdone，
betterpaidthananycommontradewhatever。"
Oneofthecauseswhichmakehand—loomweaversclingtotheir
occupationinspiteofthescantyremunerationwhichitnow
yields，issaidtobeapeculiarattractivenessarisingfromthe
freedomofactionwhichitallowstotheworkman。"Hecanplayor
idle，"saysarecentauthority，（2*）"asfeelingorinclination
leadhim;riseearlyorlate，applyhimselfassiduouslyor
carelessly，ashepleases，andworkupatanytimebyincreased
exertion，hourspreviouslysacrificedtoindulgenceor
recreation。Thereisscarcelyanotherconditionofanyportionof
ourworkingpopulationthusfreefromexternalcontrol。The
factoryoperativeisnotonlymulctedofhiswagesforabsence，
but，ifoffrequentoccurrence，dischargedaltogetherfromhis
employment。Thebricklayer，thecarpenter，thepainter，the
joiner，thestonemason，theoutdoorlabourer，haveeachtheir
appointeddailyhoursoflabour，adisregardofwhichwouldlead
tothesameresult。"Accordingly，"theweaverwillstandbyhis
loomwhileitwillenablehimtoexist，howevermiserably;and
many，inducedtemporarilytoquitit，havereturnedtoitagain，
whenworkwastobehad。"
"Employmentismuchmoreconstant，"continuesAdamSmith，"in
sometradesthaninothers。Inthegreaterpartofmanufactures，
ajourneymanmaybeprettysureofemploymentalmosteverydayin
theyearthatheisabletowork"（theinterruptionsofbusiness
arisingfromoverstockedmarkets，orfromasuspensionofdemand，
orfromacommercialcrisis，mustbeexcepted）。"Amasonor
bricklayer，Onthecontrary，canworkneitherinhardfrostnor
infoulweather，andhisemploymentatallothertimesdepends
upontheoccasionalcallsofhiscustomers。Heisliable，in
consequence，tobefrequentlywithoutany。Whatheearns，
therefore，whileheisemployed，mustnotonlymaintainhimwhile
heisidle，hutmakehimsomecompensationforthoseanxious
thoughtofsoprecariousasituationmustsometimescomputed
earningsofthegreaterpartofmanufacturers，arenearlyupona
levelwiththedaywagesofcommonlabourers，thoseofmasonsand
bricklayersaregenerallyfromone—halfmoretodoublethose
wages。Nospeciesofskilledlabour，however，seemsmoreeasyto
learnthanthatofmasonsandbricklayers。Thehighwagesof
thoseworkmen，therefore，arenotsomuchtherecompenseoftheir
skill，asthecompensationfortheinconstancyoftheir
employment。
"Whentheinconstancyoftheemploymentiscombinedwiththe
hardship，disagreeableness，anddirtinessofthework，it
sometimesraisesthewagesofthemostcommonlabourabovethose
ofthemostskilledartificers。Acollierworkingbythepiece，
issupposed，atNewcastle，toearncommonlyaboutdouble，andin
manypartsofScotlandaboutthreetimes，thewagesofcommon
labour。Hishighwagesarisealtogetherfromthehardship，
disagreeableness，anddirtinessofhiswork。Hisemploymentmay，
uponmostoccasions，beasconstantashepleases。The
coal—heaversinLondonexerciseatradewhichinhardship，
dirtiness，anddisagreeableness，almostequalsthatofcolliers;
andfromtheunavoidableirregularityinthearrivalof
coal—ships，theemploymentofthegreaterpartofthemis
necessarilyveryinconstant。Ifcolliers，therefore，commonly
earndoubleandtriplethewagesofcommonlabour，itoughtnot
toseemunreasonablethatcoal—heaversshouldsometimesearnfour
orfivetimesthosewages。Intheinquirymadeintotheir
conditionafewyearsago，itwasfoundthatattherateatwhich
theywerethenpaid，theycouldearnaboutfourtimesthewages
ofcommonlabourinLondon。Howextravagantsoevertheseearnings
mayappear，iftheyweremorethansufficienttocompensateall
thedisagreeablecircumstancesofthebusiness，therewouldsoon
besogreatanumberofcompetitorsas，inatradewhichhasno
exclusiveprivilege，wouldquicklyreducethemtoalowerrate。"
Theseinequalitiesofremuneration，whicharesupposedto
compensateforthedisagreeablecircumstancesofparticular
employments，would，undercertainconditions，benatural
consequencesofperfectlyfreecompetition:andasbetween
employmentsofaboutthesamegrade，andfilledbynearlythe
samedescriptionofpeople，theyare，nodoubt，forthemost
part，realizedinpractice。Butitisaltogetherafalseviewof
thestateoffacts，topresentthisastherelationwhich
generallyexistsbetweenagreeableanddisagreeableemployments。
Thereallyexhaustingandthereallyrepulsivelabours，instead
ofbeingbetterpaidthanothers，arealmostinvariablypaidthe
worstofall，becauseperformedbythosewhohavenochoice。It
wouldbeotherwiseinafavourablestateofthegenerallabour
market。Ifthelabourersintheaggregate，insteadofexceeding，
fellshortoftheamountofemployment，workwhichwasgenerally
dislikedwouldnotbeundertaken，exceptformorethanordinary
wages。Butwhenthesupplyoflaboursofarexceedsthedemand
thattofindemploymentatallisanuncertainty，andtobe
offereditonanytermsafavour，thecaseistotallythe
reverse。Desirablelabourers，thosewhomeveryoneisanxiousto
have，canstillexerciseachoice。Theundesirablemusttakewhat
theycanget。Themorerevoltingtheoccupation，themorecertain
itistoreceivetheminimumofremuneration，becauseitdevolves
onthemosthelplessanddegraded，onthosewhofromsqualid
poverty，orfromwantofskillandeducation，arerejectedfrom
allotheremployments。Partlyfromthiscause，andpartlyfrom
thenaturalandartificialmonopolieswhichwillbespokenof
presently，theinequalitiesofwagesaregenerallyinanopposite
directiontotheequitableprincipleofcompensationerroneously
representedbyAdamSmithasthegenerallawoftheremuneration
oflabour。Thehardshipsandtheearnings，insteadofbeing
directlyproportional，asinanyjustarrangementsofsociety
theywouldbe，aregenerallyinaninverseratiotooneanother。
OneofthepointsbestillustratedbyAdamSmith，isthe
influenceexercisedontheremunerationofanemploymentbythe
uncertaintyofsuccessinit。Ifthechancesaregreatoftotal
failure，therewardincaseofsuccessmustbesufficienttomake
up，inthegeneralestimation，forthoseadversechances。But，
owingtoanotherprincipleofhumannature，iftherewardcomes
intheshapeofafewgreatprizes，itusuallyattracts
competitorsinsuchnumbers，thattheaverageremunerationmaybe
reducednotonlytozero，buteventoanegativequantity。The
successoflotteriesprovesthatthisispossible:sincethe
aggregatebodyofadventurersinlotteriesnecessarilylose，
otherwisetheundertakerscouldnotgain。Thecaseofcertain
professionsisconsideredbyAdamSmithtobesimilar。"The
probabilitythatanyparticularpersonshalleverbequalified
fortheemploymenttowhichheiseducated，isverydifferentin
differentoccupations。Inthegreaterpartofmechanictrades，
successisalmostcertain，butveryuncertainintheliberal
professions。Putyoursonapprenticetoashoemaker，thereis
littledoubtofhislearningtomakeapairofshoes;butsend
himtostudythelaw，itisatleasttwentytooneifeverhe
makessuchproficiencyaswillenablehimtolivebythe
business。Inaperfectlyfairlottery，thosewhodrawthepries
oughttogainallthatislostbythosewhodrawtheblanks。Ina
professionwheretwentyfailforonethatsucceeds，thatone
oughttogainallthatshouldhavebeengainedbythe
unsuccessfultwenty。Thecounsellor—at—law，who，perhaps，atnear
fortyyearsofage，beginstomakesomethingbyhisprofession，
oughttoreceivetheretribution，notonlyofhisownsotedious
andexpensiveeducation，butofthatofmorethantwentyothers
whoareneverlikelytomakeanythingbyit。Howextravagant
soeverthefeesofcounsellors—at—lawmaysometimesappear，their
realretributionisneverequaltothis。Computeinany
particularplace，whatislikelytobeannuallygained，andwhat
islikelytobeannuallyspent，byallthedifferentworkmenin
anycommontrade，suchasthatofshoemakersorweavers，andyou
willfindthattheformersumwillgenerallyexceedthelatter。
Butmakethesamecomputationwithregardtoallthecounsellors
andstudentsoflaw，inallthedifferentinnsofcourt，andyou
willfindthattheirannualgainsbearbutasmallproportionto
theirannualexpense，eventhoughyouratetheformerashigh，
andthelatteraslow，ascanwellbedone。"
Whetherthisistrueinourownday，whenthegainsofthe
fewareincomparablygreaterthaninthetimeofAdamSmith，but
alsotheunsuccessfulaspirantsmuchmorenumerous，thosewho
havetheappropriateinformationmustdecide。Itdoesnot，
however，seemtobesufficientlyconsideredbyAdamSmith，that
theprizeswhichhespeaksofcomprisenotthefeesofcounsel
only，buttheplacesofemolumentandhonourtowhichtheir
professiongivesaccess，togetherwiththecoveteddistinctionof
aconspicuouspositioninthepubliceye。
Evenwheretherearenogreatprizes，themereloveof
excitementissometimesenoughtocauseanadventurousemployment
tobeoverstocked。Thisisapparent"inthereadinessofthe
commonpeopletoenlistassoldiers，ortogotosea……The
dangersandhair—breadthescapesofalifeofadventures，instead
ofdishearteningyoungpeople，seemfrequentlytorecommenda
tradetothem。Atendermother，amongtheinferiorranksof
people，isoftenafraidtosendhersontoschoolatasea—port
town，lestthesightoftheshipsandtheconversationand
adventuresofthesailorsshouldenticehimtogotosea。The
distantprospectofhazardsfromwhichwecanhopetoextricate
ourselvesbycourageandaddress，isnotdisagreeabletous，and
doesnotraisethewagesoflabourinanyemployment。Itis
otherwisewiththoseinwhichcourageandaddresscanbeofno
avail。Intradeswhichareknowntobeveryunwholesome，the
wagesoflabourarealwaysremarkablyhigh。Unwholesomenessisa
speciesofdisagreeableness，anditseffectsuponthewagesof
labouraretoberankedunderthatgeneralhead。"
2。Theprecedingarecasesinwhichinequalityof
remunerationisnecessarytoproduceequalityofattractiveness，
andareexamplesoftheequalizingeffectoffreecompetition。
Thefollowingarecasesofrealinequality，andarisefroma
differentprinciple。"Thewagesoflabourvaryaccordingtothe
smallorgreattrustwhichmustbereposedintheworkmen。The
wagesofgoldsmithsandjewellersareeverywheresuperiorto
thoseofmanyotherworkmen，notonlyofequal，butofmuch
superioringenuity;onaccountofthepreciousmaterialswith
whichtheyareintrusted。Wetrustourhealthtothephysician，
ourfortuneandsometimesourlifeandreputationtothelawyer
andattorney。Suchconfidencecouldnotsafelybereposedin
peopleofaverymeanorlowcondition。Theirrewardmustbe
such，therefore，asmaygivethemthatrankinsocietywhichso
importantatrustrequires。"
Thesuperiorityofrewardisnotheretheconsequenceof
competition，butofitsabsence:notacompensationfor
disadvantagesinherentintheemployment，butanextraadvantage;
akindofmonopolyprice，theeffectnotofalegal，butofwhat
hasbeentermedanaturalmonopoly。Ifalllabourerswere
trustworthy，itwouldnotbenecessarytogiveextrapayto
workinggoldsmithsonaccountofthetrust。Thedegreeof
integrityrequiredbeingsupposedtobeuncommon，thosewhocan
makeitappearthattheypossessitareabletotakeadvantageof
thepeculiarity，andobtainhigherpayinproportiontoits
rarity。ThisopensaclassofconsiderationswhichAdamSmith，
andmostotherpoliticaleconomists，havetakenintofartoo
littleaccount，andfrominattentiontowhich，hehasgivena
mostimperfectexpositionofthewidedifferencebetweenthe
remunerationofcommonlabourandthatofskilledemployments。
Someemploymentsrequireamuchlongertimetolearn，anda
muchmoreexpensivecourseofinstructionthanothers;andto
thisextentthereis，asexplainedbyAdamSmith，aninherent
reasonfortheirbeingmorehighlyremunerated。Ifanartizan
mustworkseveralyearsatlearninghistradebeforehecanearn
anything，andseveralyearsmorebeforebecomingsufficiently
skilfulforitsfineroperations，hemusthaveaprospectofat
lastearningenoughtopaythewagesofallthispastlabour，
withcompensationforthedelayofpayment，andanindemnityfor
theexpensesofhiseducation。Hiswages，consequently，must
yield，overandabovetheordinaryamount，anannuitysufficient
torepaythesesums，withthecommonrateofprofit，withinthe
numberofyearshecanexpecttoliveandtobeinworking
condition。This，whichisnecessarytoplacetheskilled
employments，allcircumstancestakentogether，onthesamelevel
ofadvantagewiththeunskilled，isthesmallestdifferencewhich
canexistforanylengthoftimebetweenthetworemunerations，
sinceotherwisenoonewouldlearntheskilledemployments。And
thisamountofdifferenceisallwhichAdamSmith’sprinciples
accountfor。Whenthedisparityisgreater，heseemstothink
thatitmustbeexplainedbyapprenticelaws，andtherulesof
corporationswhichrestrictadmissionintomanyoftheskilled
employments。But，independentlyoftheseoranyotherartificial
monopolies，thereisanaturalmonopolyinfavourofskilled
labourersagainsttheunskilled，whichmakesthedifferenceof
rewardexceed，sometimesinamanifoldproportion，whatis
sufficientmerelytoequalizetheiradvantages。Ifunskilled
labourershaditintheirpowertocompetewithskilled，by
merelytakingthetroubleoflearningthetrade，thedifference
ofwagesmightnotexceedwhatwouldcompensatethemforthat
trouble，attheordinaryrateatwhichlabourisremunerated。But
thefactthatacourseofinstructionisrequired，ofevenalow
degreeofcostliness，orthatthelabourermustbemaintainedfor
aconsiderabletimefromothersources，sufficeseverywhereto
excludethegreatbodyofthelabouringpeoplefromthe
possibilityofanysuchcompetition。Untillately，all
employmentswhichrequiredeventhehumbleeducationreadingand
writing，couldberecruitedonlyfromaselectclass，the
majorityhavinghadnoopportunityofacquiringthose
attainments。Allsuchemployments，accordingly，wereimmensely
overpaid，asmeasuredbytheordinaryremunerationoflabour。